{"id":22268,"date":"2017-09-17T15:02:21","date_gmt":"2017-09-17T19:02:21","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/cosmicconvergence.org\/?p=22268"},"modified":"2017-09-17T15:02:21","modified_gmt":"2017-09-17T19:02:21","slug":"illegal-human-experimentation-conducted-by-the-c-i-a-in-the-united-states-abridged-list","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/cosmicconvergence.org\/?p=22268","title":{"rendered":"Illegal Human Experimentation Conducted by the C.I.A. in the United States (Abridged List)"},"content":{"rendered":"

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Unethical human experimentation in the United States<\/h1>\n
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia<\/h4>\n
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This article is about U.S. medical experiments that are alleged to be unethical, non-consensual, or illegal. For the consensual, ethical, and legal use of human beings in medical research, see\u00a0Human subject research.<\/h3>\n

Unethical human experimentation\u00a0in the United States<\/b>\u00a0describes numerous experiments performed on human test subjects in the United States that have been considered\u00a0unethical, and were often performed illegally, without the knowledge,\u00a0consent, or\u00a0informed consent\u00a0of the\u00a0test subjects. Such tests have occurred throughout American history, but particularly in the 20th century.<\/p>\n

The experiments include: the exposure of people to chemical and biological weapons (including infection of people with deadly or debilitating diseases),\u00a0human radiation experiments, injection of people with toxic and radioactive chemicals, surgical experiments, interrogation and\u00a0torture\u00a0experiments, tests involving mind-altering substances, and a wide variety of others. Many of these tests were performed on children,[1]<\/sup>\u00a0the sick, and mentally disabled individuals, often under the guise of “medical treatment”. In many of the studies, a large portion of the subjects were poor, racial minorities, or prisoners[citation needed<\/span><\/i>]<\/sup>.<\/p>\n

Funding for many of the experiments was provided by the\u00a0United States government, especially the\u00a0United States military, the\u00a0Central Intelligence Agency, or private corporations involved with military activities[citation needed<\/span><\/i>]<\/sup>. The human research programs were usually highly secretive, and in many cases information about them was not released until many years after the studies had been performed.<\/p>\n

The ethical, professional, and legal implications of this in the United States medical and scientific community were quite significant, and led to\u00a0many institutions and policies\u00a0that attempted to ensure that future\u00a0human subject research\u00a0in the United States would be ethical and legal. Public outrage in the late 20th century over the discovery of government experiments on human subjects led to numerous congressional investigations and hearings, including the\u00a0Church Committee\u00a0and\u00a0Rockefeller Commission, both of 1975 and the 1994\u00a0Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments, among others.<\/p>\n

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Contents<\/h2>\n<\/div>\n
    \n
  • 1\u00a0<\/span>Surgical experiments<\/span><\/li>\n
  • 2\u00a0<\/span>Pathogens, disease, and biological warfare agents<\/span>\n
      \n
    • 2.1\u00a0<\/span>Late 19th century<\/span><\/li>\n
    • 2.2\u00a0<\/span>Early 20th century<\/span><\/li>\n
    • 2.3\u00a0<\/span>1940s<\/span><\/li>\n
    • 2.4\u00a0<\/span>1950s<\/span><\/li>\n
    • 2.5\u00a0<\/span>1960s<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n
    • 3\u00a0<\/span>Human radiation experiments<\/span>\n
        \n
      • 3.1\u00a0<\/span>Radioactive iodine experiments<\/span><\/li>\n
      • 3.2\u00a0<\/span>Uranium experiments<\/span><\/li>\n
      • 3.3\u00a0<\/span>Plutonium experiments<\/span><\/li>\n
      • 3.4\u00a0<\/span>Experiments involving other radioactive materials<\/span><\/li>\n
      • 3.5\u00a0<\/span>Fallout research<\/span><\/li>\n
      • 3.6\u00a0<\/span>Irradiation experiments<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n
      • 4\u00a0<\/span>Chemical experiments<\/span>\n
          \n
        • 4.1\u00a0<\/span>Nonconsensual tests<\/span><\/li>\n
        • 4.2\u00a0<\/span>Operation Top Hat<\/span><\/li>\n
        • 4.3\u00a0<\/span>Holmesburg program<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n
        • 5\u00a0<\/span>Psychological and torture experiments<\/span>\n
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          • 5.1\u00a0<\/span>U.S. government research<\/span>\n
              \n
            • 5.1.1\u00a0<\/span>Truth serum<\/span><\/li>\n
            • 5.1.2\u00a0<\/span>Drug deaths<\/span><\/li>\n
            • 5.1.3\u00a0<\/span>MKULTRA<\/span>\n
                \n
              • 5.1.3.1\u00a0<\/span>Founding<\/span><\/li>\n
              • 5.1.3.2\u00a0<\/span>Concerns<\/span><\/li>\n
              • 5.1.3.3\u00a0<\/span>Shutdown<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n
              • 5.1.4\u00a0<\/span>Experiments on patients with Mental illness<\/span><\/li>\n
              • 5.1.5\u00a0<\/span>Torture experiments<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n
              • 5.2\u00a0<\/span>Academic research<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n
              • 6\u00a0<\/span>Pharmacological research<\/span><\/li>\n
              • 7\u00a0<\/span>Other experiments<\/span><\/li>\n
              • 8\u00a0<\/span>Legal, academic and professional policy<\/span><\/li>\n
              • 9\u00a0<\/span>See also<\/span><\/li>\n
              • 10\u00a0<\/span>References<\/span>\n
                  \n
                • 10.1\u00a0<\/span>Notes<\/span><\/li>\n
                • 10.2\u00a0<\/span>Bibliography<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n
                • 11\u00a0<\/span>Further resources<\/span>\n
                    \n
                  • 11.1\u00a0<\/span>General<\/span><\/li>\n
                  • 11.2\u00a0<\/span>Biological warfare and disease\/pathogen experiments<\/span><\/li>\n
                  • 11.3\u00a0<\/span>Human radiation experiments<\/span>\n
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                    • 11.3.1\u00a0<\/span>Books<\/span><\/li>\n
                    • 11.3.2\u00a0<\/span>Government documents<\/span><\/li>\n
                    • 11.3.3\u00a0<\/span>Journals<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n
                    • 11.4\u00a0<\/span>Psychological\/torture\/interrogation experiments<\/span><\/li>\n
                    • 11.5\u00a0<\/span>Video<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n

                      Surgical experiments<\/span><\/h2>\n

                      Throughout the 1840s,\u00a0J. Marion Sims, who is often referred to as “the father of\u00a0gynecology”, performed surgical experiments on\u00a0enslaved African\u00a0women, without\u00a0anaesthesia\u00a0[2]<\/sup>. The women\u2014one of whom was operated on 30 times\u2014eventually died from infections resulting from the experiments. In order to test one of his theories about the causes of\u00a0trismus\u00a0in infants, Sims performed experiments where he used a shoemaker’s\u00a0awl\u00a0to move around the skull bones of the babies of enslaved women.[3]<\/sup>[4]<\/sup>\u00a0He also addicted the women in his surgical experiments to morphine, only providing the drugs after surgery was already complete, in order to make them more compliant.[5]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      In 1874, Mary Rafferty, an Irish servant woman, came to Dr.\u00a0Roberts Bartholow\u00a0of the Good Samaritan Hospital in Cincinnati for treatment of her cancer. Seeing a research opportunity, he cut open her head, and inserted needle electrodes into her exposed brain matter.[6]<\/sup>\u00a0He described the experiment as follows:<\/p>\n

                      When the needle entered the brain substance, she complained of acute pain in the neck. In order to develop more decided reactions, the strength of the current was increased … her countenance exhibited great distress, and she began to cry. Very soon, the left hand was extended as if in the act of taking hold of some object in front of her; the arm presently was agitated with clonic spasm; her eyes became fixed, with pupils widely dilated; lips were blue, and she frothed at the mouth; her breathing became stertorous; she lost consciousness and was violently convulsed on the left side. The convulsion lasted five minutes, and was succeeded by a coma. She returned to consciousness in twenty minutes from the beginning of the attack, and complained of some weakness and vertigo.<\/p>\n

                      \u2014\u2009Dr. Bartholow’s research report[6]<\/sup><\/cite><\/div>\n<\/blockquote>\n

                      In 1896, Dr. Arthur Wentworth performed\u00a0spinal taps\u00a0on 29 young children, without the knowledge or consent of their parents, at the Children’s Hospital in\u00a0Boston, Massachusetts\u00a0to discover whether doing so would be harmful.[7]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      From 1913 to 1951, Dr. Leo Stanley, chief surgeon at the\u00a0San Quentin Prison, performed a wide variety of experiments on hundreds of prisoners at San Quentin. Many of the experiments involved testicular implants, where Stanley would take the\u00a0testicles\u00a0out of\u00a0executedprisoners and surgically implant them into living prisoners. In other experiments, he attempted to implant the testicles of\u00a0rams,\u00a0goats, and\u00a0boars\u00a0into living prisoners. Stanley also performed various\u00a0eugenics\u00a0experiments, and\u00a0forced sterilizations\u00a0on San Quentin prisoners.[8]<\/sup>\u00a0Stanley believed that his experiments would rejuvenate old men, control crime (which he believed had biological causes), and prevent the “unfit” from reproducing.[8]<\/sup>[9]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      Pathogens, disease, and biological warfare agents<\/span><\/h2>\n
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                      \n

                      \"\"<\/p>\n

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                      <\/div>\n

                      A subject of the\u00a0Tuskegee syphilis experiment\u00a0has his blood drawn, c. 1953<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

                      Late 19th century<\/span><\/h3>\n

                      In the 1880s, in Hawaii, a California physician working at a hospital for\u00a0lepers\u00a0injected six girls under the age of 12 with\u00a0syphilis.[7]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      In 1895,\u00a0New York City\u00a0pediatrician\u00a0Henry Heiman intentionally infected two mentally disabled boys\u2014one four-year-old and one sixteen-year-old\u2014with\u00a0gonorrhea\u00a0as part of a medical experiment. A review of the medical literature of the late 19th and early 20th centuries found more than 40 reports of experimental infections with gonorrheal culture, including some where gonorrheal organisms were applied to the eyes of sick children.[7]<\/sup>[10]<\/sup>[11]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      U.S. Army\u00a0doctors in the\u00a0Philippines\u00a0infected five prisoners with\u00a0bubonic plague\u00a0and induced\u00a0beriberi\u00a0in 29 prisoners; four of the test subjects died as a result.[12]<\/sup>[13]<\/sup>\u00a0In 1906, Professor Richard Strong of Harvard University intentionally infected 24 Filipino prisoners with\u00a0cholera, which had somehow become contaminated with plague. He did this without the consent of the patients, and without informing them of what he was doing. All of the subjects became sick and 13 died.[13]<\/sup>[14]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      Early 20th century<\/span><\/h3>\n

                      In 1908, three Philadelphia researchers infected dozens of children with\u00a0tuberculin\u00a0at the St. Vincent’s House orphanage in Philadelphia, causing permanent blindness in some of the children and painful lesions and inflammation of the eyes in many of the others. In the study, they refer to the children as “material used”.[15]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      In 1909, F. C. Knowles released a study describing how he had deliberately infected two children in an orphanage with\u00a0Molluscum contagiosum<\/i>\u2014a virus that causes wartlike growths\u2014after an outbreak in the orphanage, in order to study the disease.[7]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      In 1911, Dr.\u00a0Hideyo Noguchi\u00a0of the\u00a0Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research\u00a0injected 146 hospital patients (some of whom were children) with syphilis. He was later sued by the parents of some of the child subjects, who allegedly contracted syphilis as a result of his experiments.[16]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      The\u00a0Tuskegee syphilis experiment[17]<\/sup>\u00a0was a\u00a0clinical study\u00a0conducted between 1932 and 1972 in\u00a0Tuskegee, Alabama, by the\u00a0U.S. Public Health Service. In the experiment, 399 impoverished black males who had syphilis were offered “treatment” by the researchers, who did not tell the test subjects that they had syphilis and did not give them treatment for the disease, but rather just studied them to chart the progress of the disease. By 1947,\u00a0penicillin\u00a0became available as treatment, but those running the study prevented study participants from receiving treatment elsewhere, lying to them about their true condition, so that they could observe the effects of syphilis on the human body. By the end of the study in 1972, only 74 of the test subjects were alive. 28 of the original 399 men had died of syphilis, 100 were dead of related complications, 40 of their wives had been\u00a0infected, and 19 of their children were born with\u00a0congenital syphilis. The study was not shut down until 1972, when its existence was leaked to the press, forcing the researchers to stop in the face of a public outcry.[18]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      1940s<\/span><\/h3>\n

                      In 1941, at the\u00a0University of Michigan, virologists\u00a0Thomas Francis,\u00a0Jonas Salk\u00a0and other researchers deliberately infected patients at several Michigan mental institutions with the\u00a0influenza\u00a0virus by spraying the virus into their\u00a0nasal\u00a0passages.[19]<\/sup>\u00a0Francis Peyton Rous, based at the\u00a0Rockefeller Institute\u00a0and editor of the\u00a0Journal of Experimental Medicine,<\/i>\u00a0wrote the following to Francis regarding the experiments:<\/p>\n

                      “It may save you much trouble if you publish your paper… elsewhere than in the\u00a0Journal of Experimental Medicine<\/i>. The\u00a0Journal<\/i>\u00a0is under constant scrutiny by the anti-vivisectionists who would not hesitate to play up the fact that you used for your tests human beings of a state institution. That the tests were wholly justified goes without saying.”[20]<\/sup><\/p><\/blockquote>\n

                      Rous closely monitored the articles he published since the 1930s, when revival of the anti-vivisectionist movement raised pressure against certain human experimentation.[21]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      In 1941 Dr. William C. Black\u00a0inoculated\u00a0a twelve-month-old baby with\u00a0herpes\u00a0who was “offered as a volunteer”. He submitted his research to\u00a0The Journal of Experimental Medicine<\/i>\u00a0which rejected the findings due to the ethically questionable research methods used in the study. The editor of the\u00a0Journal of Experimental Medicine<\/i>, Francis Peyton Rous, called the experiment “an abuse of power, an infringement of the rights of an individual, and not excusable because the illness which followed had implications for science.”[22]<\/sup>[23]<\/sup>[24]<\/sup>The study was later published in the\u00a0Journal of Pediatrics<\/i>.[25]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      The\u00a0Stateville Penitentiary\u00a0Malaria Study was a controlled study of the effects of\u00a0malaria\u00a0on the prisoners of\u00a0Stateville Penitentiary\u00a0near Joliet, Illinois, beginning in the 1940s. The study was conducted by the Department of Medicine at the University of Chicago in conjunction with the United States Army and the State Department. At the\u00a0Nuremberg trials, Nazi doctors cited the precedent of the malaria experiments as part of their defense.[26]<\/sup>[27]<\/sup>\u00a0The study continued at Stateville Penitentiary for 29 years. In related studies from 1944 to 1946, Dr. Alf Alving, a professor at the\u00a0University of Chicago\u00a0Medical School, purposely infected psychiatric patients at the Illinois State Hospital with\u00a0malaria, so that he could test experimental treatments on them.[28]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      In a 1946 to 1948\u00a0study in Guatemala, U.S. researchers used\u00a0prostitutes\u00a0to infect prison inmates, insane asylum patients, and Guatemalan soldiers with syphilis and other\u00a0sexually transmitted diseases, in order to test the effectiveness of penicillin in treating the STDs. They later tried infecting people with “direct inoculations made from syphilis bacteria poured into the men’s\u00a0penises\u00a0and on forearms and faces that were slightly abraded . . . or in a few cases through spinal punctures”. Approximately 700 people were infected as part of the study (including\u00a0orphan\u00a0children). The study was sponsored by the\u00a0Public Health Service, the\u00a0National Institutes of Healthand the Pan American Health Sanitary Bureau (now the\u00a0World Health Organization’s Pan American Health Organization) and the Guatemalan government. The team was led by\u00a0John Charles Cutler, who later participated in the\u00a0Tuskegee syphilis experiments. Cutler chose to do the study in Guatemala because he would not have been permitted to do it in the United States. In 2010 when the research was revealed, the US officially apologized to Guatemala for the studies.[29]<\/sup>[30]<\/sup>[31]<\/sup>[32]<\/sup>\u00a0A lawsuit has been launched against\u00a0Johns Hopkins University,\u00a0Bristol-Myers Squibb\u00a0and the\u00a0Rockefeller Foundation\u00a0for alleged involvement in the study.[33]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      1950s<\/span><\/h3>\n

                      In 1950, in order to conduct a simulation of a biological warfare attack, the U.S. Navy sprayed large quantities of the bacteria\u00a0Serratia marcescens<\/i>\u00a0\u2013 considered harmless at this time \u2013 over the city of San Francisco during a project called\u00a0Operation Sea-Spray. Numerous citizens contracted pneumonia-like illnesses, and at least one person died as a result.[34]<\/sup>[35]<\/sup>[36]<\/sup>[37]<\/sup>[38]<\/sup>[39]<\/sup>\u00a0The family of the man who died sued the government for gross negligence, but a federal judge ruled in favor of the government in 1981.[40]<\/sup>\u00a0Serratia<\/i>\u00a0tests were continued until at least 1969.[41]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      Also in 1950, Dr. Joseph Stokes of the\u00a0University of Pennsylvania\u00a0deliberately infected 200 female prisoners with\u00a0viral hepatitis.[42]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      From the 1950s to 1972, mentally disabled children at the\u00a0Willowbrook State School\u00a0in\u00a0Staten Island,\u00a0New York\u00a0were intentionally infected with viral hepatitis, for research whose purpose was to help discover a\u00a0vaccine.[43]<\/sup>\u00a0From 1963 to 1966,\u00a0Saul Krugman\u00a0of\u00a0New York University\u00a0promised the parents of mentally disabled children that their children would be enrolled into Willowbrook in exchange for signing a consent form for procedures that he claimed were “vaccinations.” In reality, the procedures involved deliberately infecting children with\u00a0viral hepatitis\u00a0by\u00a0feeding\u00a0them an extract made from the\u00a0feces\u00a0of patients infected with the disease.[44]<\/sup>[45]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      In 1952,\u00a0Chester M. Southam, a\u00a0Sloan-Kettering Institute\u00a0researcher, injected live cancer cells, known as\u00a0HeLa\u00a0cells, into prisoners at the\u00a0Ohio State Penitentiary\u00a0and cancer patients. Also at Sloan-Kettering, 300 healthy women were injected with live cancer cells without being told. The doctors stated that they knew at the time that it might cause cancer.[46]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      In 1953\u00a0Frank Olson\u00a0died after a fall from a hotel building after being unknowingly doped with\u00a0LSD\u00a0by the CIA nine days prior.<\/p>\n

                      The San Francisco Chronicle<\/i>, December 17, 1979, p.\u00a05 reported a claim by the\u00a0Church of Scientology\u00a0that the CIA conducted an open-air biological warfare experiment in 1955 near\u00a0Tampa, Florida\u00a0and elsewhere in\u00a0Florida\u00a0with\u00a0whooping cough bacteria. It was alleged that the experiment tripled the whooping cough infections in Florida to over one-thousand cases and caused whooping cough deaths in the state to increase from one to 12 over the previous year. This claim has been cited in a number of later sources, although these added no further supporting evidence.[47]<\/sup>[48]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      During the 1950s the United States conducted a series of field tests using\u00a0entomological weapons.\u00a0Operation Big Itch, in 1954, was designed to test munitions loaded with uninfected fleas (Xenopsylla cheopis<\/i>). In May 1955 over 300,000 uninfected mosquitoes (Aedes aegypti<\/i>) were dropped over parts of the U.S. state of Georgia to determine if the air-dropped mosquitoes could survive to take meals from humans. The mosquito tests were known as\u00a0Operation Big Buzz. The U.S. engaged in at least two other EW testing programs,\u00a0Operation Drop Kick\u00a0and\u00a0Operation May Day.[47]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      1960s<\/span><\/h3>\n

                      In 1963, 22 elderly patients at the\u00a0Jewish Chronic Disease Hospital\u00a0in\u00a0Brooklyn, New York were injected with live cancer cells by\u00a0Chester M. Southam, who in 1952 had done the same to prisoners at the Ohio State Prison, in order to “discover the secret of how healthy bodies fight the invasion of malignant cells”. The administration of the hospital attempted to cover the study up, but the New York medical licensing board ultimately placed Southam on probation for one year. Two years later, the\u00a0American Cancer Societyelected him as their Vice President.[49]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      From 1963 to 1969 as part of\u00a0Project Shipboard Hazard and Defense\u00a0(SHAD), the U.S. Army performed tests which involved spraying several U.S. ships with various biological and chemical warfare agents, while thousands of U.S. military personnel were aboard the ships. The personnel were not notified of the tests, and were not given any protective clothing. Chemicals tested on the U.S. military personnel included the nerve gases\u00a0VX\u00a0and\u00a0Sarin, toxic chemicals such as\u00a0zinc cadmium sulfide\u00a0and\u00a0sulfur dioxide, and a variety of biological agents.[50]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      In 1966, the U.S. Army released\u00a0Bacillus globigii<\/i>\u00a0into the tunnels of the\u00a0New York City Subway\u00a0system, as part of a field experiment called\u00a0A Study of the Vulnerability of Subway Passengers in New York City to Covert Attack with Biological Agents<\/i>.[47]<\/sup>[51]<\/sup>[52]<\/sup>[53]<\/sup>[54]<\/sup>\u00a0The\u00a0Chicago subway system\u00a0was also subject to a similar experiment by the Army.[47]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      Human radiation experiments<\/span><\/h2>\n
                      Main article:\u00a0Human radiation experiments<\/div>\n

                      Researchers in the United States have performed thousands of\u00a0human radiation experiments\u00a0to determine the effects of\u00a0atomic radiation\u00a0and\u00a0radioactive contamination\u00a0on the human body, generally on people who were poor, sick, or powerless.[55]<\/sup>\u00a0Most of these tests were performed, funded, or supervised by the\u00a0United States military,\u00a0Atomic Energy Commission, or various other\u00a0U.S. federal government\u00a0agencies.<\/p>\n

                      The experiments included a wide array of studies, involving things like feeding radioactive food to mentally disabled children or\u00a0conscientious objectors, inserting\u00a0radium\u00a0rods into the noses of schoolchildren, deliberately releasing radioactive chemicals over U.S. and Canadian cities, measuring the health effects of radioactive fallout from nuclear bomb tests, injecting pregnant women and babies with radioactive chemicals, and irradiating the testicles of prison inmates, amongst other things.<\/p>\n

                      Much information about these programs was\u00a0classified\u00a0and kept secret. In 1986 the\u00a0United States House Committee on Energy and Commerce\u00a0released a report entitled\u00a0American Nuclear Guinea Pigs\u00a0: Three Decades of Radiation Experiments on U.S. Citizens<\/i>.[56]<\/sup>\u00a0In the 1990s\u00a0Eileen Welsome’s reports on radiation testing for\u00a0The Albuquerque Tribune<\/i>\u00a0prompted the creation of the\u00a0Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments\u00a0by\u00a0executive order\u00a0of president\u00a0Bill Clinton, to monitor government tests. It published results in 1995. Welsome later wrote a book called\u00a0The Plutonium Files.<\/i><\/p>\n

                      Radioactive iodine experiments<\/span><\/h3>\n

                      In a 1949 operation called the “Green Run,” the\u00a0U.S. Atomic Energy Commission\u00a0(AEC) released\u00a0iodine-131\u00a0and\u00a0xenon-133\u00a0to the atmosphere near the\u00a0Hanford site\u00a0in Washington, which contaminated a 500,000-acre (2,000\u00a0km2<\/sup>) area containing three small towns.[57]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      In 1953, the AEC ran several studies at the\u00a0University of Iowa\u00a0on the health effects of radioactive iodine in newborns and pregnant women. In one study, researchers gave pregnant women from 100 to 200\u00a0microcuries\u00a0(3.7 to 7.4\u00a0MBq) of iodine-131, in order to study the women’s\u00a0aborted embryos\u00a0in an attempt to discover at what stage, and to what extent, radioactive iodine crosses the\u00a0placentalbarrier. In another study, they gave 25 newborn babies (who were under 36 hours old and weighed from 5.5 to 8.5 pounds (2.5 to 3.9\u00a0kg)) iodine-131, either by oral administration or through an injection, so that they could measure the amount of iodine in their thyroid glands, as iodine would go to that gland.[58]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      In another AEC study, researchers at the\u00a0University of Nebraska College of Medicine\u00a0fed iodine-131 to 28 healthy infants through a gastric tube to test the concentration of iodine in the infants’ thyroid glands.[58]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      In 1953, the AEC sponsored a study to discover if radioactive iodine affected\u00a0premature\u00a0babies differently from full-term babies. In the experiment, researchers from Harper Hospital in\u00a0Detroit\u00a0orally administered iodine-131 to 65 premature and full-term infants who weighed from 2.1 to 5.5 pounds (0.95 to 2.49\u00a0kg).[58]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      From 1955 to 1960,\u00a0Sonoma State Hospital\u00a0in northern California served as a permanent drop-off location for mentally handicapped children diagnosed with\u00a0cerebral palsy\u00a0or lesser disorders. The children subsequently underwent painful experimentation without adult consent. Many were given\u00a0spinal taps\u00a0“for which they received no direct benefit.” Reporters of\u00a060 Minutes<\/i>\u00a0learned that in these five years, the brain of every child with cerebral palsy who died at Sonoma State was removed and studied without parental consent. According to the CBS story, over 1,400 patients died at the clinic.[59]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      In an experiment in the 1960s, over 100 Alaskan citizens were continually exposed to radioactive iodine.[60]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      In 1962, the Hanford site again released I-131, stationing test subjects along its path to record its effect on them. The AEC also recruited Hanford volunteers to ingest milk contaminated with I-131 during this time.[58]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      Uranium experiments<\/span><\/h3>\n
                      \n
                      \n
                      “It is desired that no document be released which refers to experiments with humans and might have adverse effect on public opinion or result in legal suits. Documents covering such work should be\u00a0classified\u00a0`secret\u2019.”<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

                      April 17, 1947 Atomic Energy Commission memo from Colonel O.G. Haywood, Jr. to Dr. Fidler at the\u00a0Oak Ridge National Laboratory\u00a0in Tennessee[61]<\/sup><\/cite><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

                      Between 1946 and 1947, researchers at the\u00a0University of Rochester\u00a0injected\u00a0uranium-234\u00a0and\u00a0uranium-235\u00a0in dosages ranging from 6.4 to 70.7\u00a0micrograms\u00a0per kilogram of\u00a0body weight\u00a0into six people to study how much uranium their kidneys could tolerate before becoming damaged.[62]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      Between 1953 and 1957, at the\u00a0Massachusetts General Hospital, Dr. William Sweet injected eleven terminally ill, comatose and semi-comatose patients with uranium in an experiment to determine, among other things, its viability as a\u00a0chemotherapy\u00a0treatment against\u00a0brain tumors, which all but one of the patients had (one being a mis-diagnosis). Dr. Sweet, who died in 2001, maintained that consent had been obtained from the patients and next of kin.[63]<\/sup>[64]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      Plutonium experiments<\/span><\/h3>\n

                      From April 10, 1945 to July 18, 1947, eighteen people were injected with plutonium as part of the\u00a0Manhattan Project.[65]<\/sup>\u00a0Doses administered ranged from 95 to 5,900\u00a0nanocuries.[65]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      Albert Stevens, a man misdiagnosed with stomach cancer, received “treatment” for his “cancer” at the U.C. San Francisco Medical Center in 1945. Dr.\u00a0Joseph Gilbert Hamilton, a Manhattan Project doctor in charge of the human experiments in California[66]<\/sup>\u00a0had Stevens injected with\u00a0Pu-238\u00a0and\u00a0Pu-239\u00a0without informed consent. Stevens never had cancer; a surgery to remove cancerous cells was highly successful in removing the benign tumor, and he lived for another 20 years with the injected plutonium.[67]<\/sup>\u00a0Since Stevens received the highly radioactive Pu-238, his accumulated dose over his remaining life was higher than anyone has ever received: 64\u00a0Sv(6400 rem). Neither Albert Stevens nor any of his relatives were told that he never had cancer; they were led to believe that the experimental “treatment” had worked. His cremated remains were surreptitiously acquired by\u00a0Argonne National Laboratory\u00a0Center for Human Radiobiology in 1975 without the consent of surviving relatives. Some of the ashes were transferred to the National Human Radiobiology Tissue Repository at\u00a0Washington State University,[67]<\/sup>\u00a0which keeps the remains of people who died having radioisotopes in their body.<\/p>\n

                      Three patients at Billings Hospital at the\u00a0University of Chicago\u00a0were injected with plutonium.[68]<\/sup>\u00a0In 1946, six employees of a Chicago\u00a0metallurgical\u00a0lab were given water that was contaminated with\u00a0plutonium-239, so that researchers could study how plutonium is absorbed into the\u00a0digestive tract.[62]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      An eighteen-year-old woman at an upstate New York hospital, expecting to be treated for a\u00a0pituitary gland\u00a0disorder, was injected with\u00a0plutonium.[69]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      Experiments involving other radioactive materials<\/span><\/h3>\n

                      Immediately after World War II, researchers at\u00a0Vanderbilt University\u00a0gave 829 pregnant mothers in Tennessee what they were told were “vitamin drinks” that would improve the health of their babies. The mixtures contained radioactive iron and the researchers were determining how fast the radioisotope crossed into the\u00a0placenta. At least three children are known to have died from the experiments, from cancers and\u00a0leukemia.[70]<\/sup>[71]<\/sup>\u00a0Four of the women’s babies died from cancers as a result of the experiments, and the women experienced rashes, bruises, anemia, hair\/tooth loss, and cancer.[55]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      From 1946 to 1953, at the\u00a0Walter E. Fernald State School\u00a0in Massachusetts, in an experiment sponsored by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission and the\u00a0Quaker Oats\u00a0corporation, 73 mentally disabled children were fed\u00a0oatmeal\u00a0containing radioactive\u00a0calcium\u00a0and other\u00a0radioisotopes, in order to track “how nutrients were digested”. The children were not told that they were being fed radioactive chemicals; they were told by hospital staff and researchers that they were joining a “science club”.[70]<\/sup>[72]<\/sup>[73]<\/sup>[74]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      The\u00a0University of California Hospital in San Francisco\u00a0exposed 29 patients, some with\u00a0rheumatoid arthritis, to total body irradiation (100-300 rad dose) to obtain data for the military.[75]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      In the 1950s, researchers at the\u00a0Medical College of Virginia\u00a0performed experiments on severe burn victims, most of them poor and black, without their knowledge or consent, with funding from the Army and in collaboration with the AEC. In the experiments, the subjects were exposed to additional burning, experimental antibiotic treatment, and injections of radioactive isotopes. The amount of radioactive\u00a0phosphorus-32\u00a0injected into some of the patients, 500 microcuries (19\u00a0MBq), was 50 times the “acceptable” dose for a\u00a0healthy<\/i>\u00a0individual; for people with severe burns, this likely led to significantly increased death rates.[76]<\/sup>[77]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      Between 1948 and 1954, funded by the federal government, researchers at the\u00a0Johns Hopkins Hospital\u00a0inserted radium rods into the noses of 582\u00a0Baltimore, Maryland\u00a0schoolchildren as an alternative to\u00a0adenoidectomy.[78]<\/sup>[79]<\/sup>[80]<\/sup>\u00a0Similar experiments were performed on over 7,000 U.S. Army and Navy personnel during World War II.[78]<\/sup>\u00a0Nasal radium irradiation became a standard medical treatment and was used in over two and a half million Americans.[78]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      In another study at the Walter E. Fernald State School, in 1956, researchers gave mentally disabled children radioactive calcium orally and intravenously. They also injected radioactive chemicals into malnourished babies and then pushed needles through their skulls, into their brains, through their necks, and into their spines to collect\u00a0cerebrospinal fluid\u00a0for analysis.[74]<\/sup>[81]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      In 1961 and 1962, ten\u00a0Utah State Prison\u00a0inmates had blood samples taken which were mixed with radioactive chemicals and reinjected back into their bodies.[82]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      The\u00a0Atomic Energy Commission\u00a0funded the\u00a0Massachusetts Institute of Technology\u00a0to administer\u00a0radium-224\u00a0and\u00a0thorium-234\u00a0to 20 people between 1961 and 1965. Many were chosen from the Age Center of New England and had volunteered for “research projects on aging”. Doses were 0.2\u20132.4 microcuries (7.4\u201388.8\u00a0kBq) for radium and 1.2\u2013120 microcuries (44\u20134,440\u00a0kBq) for thorium.[56]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      In a 1967 study that was published in the\u00a0Journal of Clinical Investigation<\/i>, pregnant women were injected with radioactive\u00a0cortisol\u00a0to see if it would cross the placental barrier and affect the\u00a0fetuses.[83]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      Fallout research<\/span><\/h3>\n
                      \n
                      \n

                      \"\"<\/p>\n

                      \n
                      <\/div>\n

                      Cover of the final report of\u00a0Project 4.1, which examined the effects of\u00a0radioactive fallout\u00a0on the natives of the\u00a0Marshall Islands<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

                      In 1957, atmospheric nuclear explosions in Nevada, which were part of\u00a0Operation Plumbbobwere later determined to have released enough radiation to have caused from 11,000 to 212,000 excess cases of\u00a0thyroid cancer\u00a0among U.S. citizens who were exposed to\u00a0fallout\u00a0from the explosions, leading to between 1,100 and 21,000 deaths.[84]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      Early in the\u00a0Cold War, in studies known as\u00a0Project GABRIEL\u00a0and\u00a0Project SUNSHINE, researchers in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia tried to determine how much nuclear fallout would be required to make the Earth uninhabitable.[85]<\/sup>[86]<\/sup>\u00a0They realized that atmospheric\u00a0nuclear testing\u00a0had provided them an opportunity to investigate this. Such tests had dispersed\u00a0radioactive contamination\u00a0worldwide, and examination of human bodies could reveal how readily it was taken up and hence how much damage it caused. Of particular interest was\u00a0strontium-90 in the bones. Infants were the primary focus, as they would have had a full opportunity to absorb the new contaminants.[87]<\/sup>[88]<\/sup>\u00a0As a result of this conclusion, researchers began a program to collect human bodies and bones from all over the world, with a particular focus on infants. The bones were cremated and the ashes analyzed for radioisotopes. This project was kept secret primarily because it would be a\u00a0public relations\u00a0disaster; as a result parents and family were not told what was being done with the body parts of their relatives.[89]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      Irradiation experiments<\/span><\/h3>\n

                      Between 1960 and 1971, the Department of Defense funded non-consensual\u00a0whole body radiation\u00a0experiments on poor, black cancer patients, who were not told what was being done to them. Patients were told that they were receiving a “treatment” that might cure their cancer, but the Pentagon was trying to determine the effects of high levels of radiation on the human body. One of the doctors involved in the experiments,\u00a0Robert Stone, was worried about\u00a0litigation\u00a0by the patients. He referred to them only by their initials on the medical reports. He did this so that, in his words, “there will be no means by which the patients can ever connect themselves up with the report”, in order to prevent “either adverse publicity or litigation”.[90]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      From 1960 to 1971,\u00a0Dr. Eugene Saenger, funded by the\u00a0Defense Atomic Support Agency, performed whole body radiation experiments on more than 90 poor, black, advanced stage cancer patients with inoperable tumors at the University of Cincinnati Medical Center during the\u00a0Cincinnati Radiation Experiments. He forged consent forms, and did not inform the patients of the risks of irradiation. The patients were given 100 or more rads (1\u00a0Gy) of whole-body radiation, which in many caused intense pain and vomiting. Critics have questioned the medical rationale for this study, and contend that the main purpose of the research was to study the acute effects of radiation exposure.[91]<\/sup>[92]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      From 1963 to 1973, a leading\u00a0endocrinologist, Dr. Carl Heller,\u00a0irradiated\u00a0the testicles of\u00a0Oregon\u00a0and\u00a0Washington\u00a0prisoners. In return for their participation, he gave them $5 a month, and $100 when they had to receive a\u00a0vasectomy\u00a0upon conclusion of the trial. The surgeon who sterilized the men said that it was necessary to “keep from contaminating the general population with radiation-induced\u00a0mutants”. Dr. Joseph Hamilton, one of the researchers who had worked with Heller on the experiments, said that the experiments “had a little of the\u00a0Buchenwald\u00a0touch”.[93]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      In 1963,\u00a0University of Washington\u00a0researchers\u00a0irradiated\u00a0the\u00a0testes\u00a0of 232 prisoners to determine the effects of radiation on testicular function. When these inmates later left prison and had children, at least four of them had offspring born with\u00a0birth defects. The exact number is unknown because researchers never followed up on the status of the subjects.[94]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      Chemical experiments<\/span><\/h2>\n

                      Nonconsensual tests<\/span><\/h3>\n

                      From 1942 to 1944, the U.S.\u00a0Chemical Warfare Service\u00a0conducted experiments which exposed thousands of U.S. military personnel to\u00a0mustard gas, in order to test the effectiveness of gas masks and protective clothing.[95]<\/sup>[96]<\/sup>[97]<\/sup>[98]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      From 1950 through 1953, the U.S. Army sprayed chemicals over six cities in the United States and Canada, in order to test dispersal patterns of chemical weapons. Army records stated that the chemicals which were sprayed on the city of\u00a0Winnipeg, Canada, included\u00a0zinc cadmium sulfide, which was not thought to be harmful.[99]<\/sup>\u00a0A 1997 study by the\u00a0U.S. National Research Council\u00a0found that it was sprayed at levels so low as not to be harmful; it said that people were normally exposed to higher levels in urban environments.<\/p>\n

                      To test whether or not\u00a0sulfuric acid, which is used in making\u00a0molasses, was harmful as a food additive, the Louisiana State Board of Health commissioned a study to feed “Negro prisoners” nothing but molasses for five weeks. One report stated that prisoners didn’t “object to submitting themselves to the test, because it would not do any good if they did.”[14]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      A 1953 article in the medical\/scientific journal\u00a0Clinical Science<\/i>[100]<\/sup>\u00a0described a medical experiment in which researchers intentionally blistered the skin on the\u00a0abdomens\u00a0of 41 children, who ranged in age from 8 to 14, using\u00a0cantharide. The study was performed to determine how severely the substance injures\/irritates the skin of children. After the studies, the children’s blistered skin was removed with scissors and swabbed with peroxide.[83]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      Operation Top Hat<\/span><\/h3>\n

                      In June 1953 the\u00a0United States Army\u00a0formally adopted guidelines regarding the use of human subjects in chemical, biological, or radiological testing and research, where authorization from the\u00a0Secretary of the Army\u00a0was now required for all research projects involving human subjects. Under the guidelines, seven research projects involving chemical weapons and human subjects were submitted by the\u00a0Chemical Corps\u00a0for Secretary of the Army approval in August 1953. One project involved\u00a0vesicants, one involved\u00a0phosgene, and five were experiments which involved\u00a0nerve agents; all seven were approved.[101]<\/sup>[102]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      The guidelines, however, left a loophole; they did not define what types of experiments and tests required such approval from the Secretary.\u00a0Operation Top Hat\u00a0was among the numerous projects not submitted for approval. It was termed a “local field exercise”[101]<\/sup>\u00a0by the Army and took place from September 15\u201319, 1953 at the\u00a0Army Chemical School\u00a0at\u00a0Fort McClellan, Alabama. The experiments used Chemical Corps personnel to test decontamination methods for biological and chemical weapons, including\u00a0sulfur mustard\u00a0and\u00a0nerve agents. The personnel were deliberately exposed to these contaminants, were not volunteers, and were not informed of the tests. In a 1975\u00a0Pentagon\u00a0Inspector General’s report, the military maintained that Operation Top Hat was not subject to the guidelines requiring approval because it was a line of duty exercise in the Chemical Corps.[101]<\/sup>[102]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      Holmesburg program<\/span><\/h3>\n
                      \n
                      \n

                      \"\"<\/p>\n

                      \n
                      <\/div>\n

                      Chloracne\u00a0resulting from exposure to\u00a0dioxins, such as those that Albert Kligman injected into prisoners at the\u00a0Holmesburg Prison<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

                      From approximately 1951 to 1974, the\u00a0Holmesburg Prison\u00a0in\u00a0Pennsylvania\u00a0was the site of extensive\u00a0dermatological\u00a0research operations, using prisoners as subjects. Led by\u00a0Dr. Albert M. Kligman\u00a0of the\u00a0University of Pennsylvania, the studies were performed on behalf of\u00a0Dow Chemical Company, the U.S. Army, and\u00a0Johnson & Johnson.[103]<\/sup>[104]<\/sup>[105]<\/sup>\u00a0In one of the studies, for which Dow Chemical paid Kligman $10,000, Kligman injected\u00a0dioxin\u00a0\u2014 a highly toxic,\u00a0carcinogenic\u00a0compound found in\u00a0Agent Orange, which Dow was manufacturing for use in Vietnam at the time \u2014 into 70 prisoners (most of them black). The prisoners developed severe lesions which went untreated for seven months.[12]<\/sup>\u00a0Dow Chemical wanted to study the health effects of dioxin and other\u00a0herbicides, and how they affect human skin, because workers at their chemical plants were developing\u00a0chloracne. In the study, Kligman applied roughly the same amount of dioxin as that to which Dow employees were being exposed. In 1980 and 1981, some of the people who were used in this study sued Professor Kligman for a variety of health problems, including\u00a0lupus\u00a0and psychological damage.[106]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      Kligman later continued his dioxin studies, increasing the dosage of dioxin he applied to the skin of 10 prisoners to 7,500 micrograms of dioxin, which is 468 times the dosage that the Dow Chemical official Gerald K. Rowe had authorized him to administer. As a result, the prisoners developed inflammatory\u00a0pustules\u00a0and\u00a0papules.[106]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      The Holmesburg program paid hundreds of inmates a nominal stipend to test a wide range of cosmetic products and chemical compounds, whose health effects were unknown at the time.[107]<\/sup>[108]<\/sup>\u00a0Upon his arrival at Holmesberg, Kligman is claimed to have said, “All I saw before me were acres of skin … It was like a farmer seeing a fertile field for the first time.”[109]<\/sup>\u00a0A 1964 issue of\u00a0Medical News<\/i>reported that 9 out of 10 prisoners at Holmesburg Prison were medical test subjects.[110]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      In 1967, the U.S. Army paid Kligman to apply skin-blistering chemicals to the faces and backs of inmates at Holmesburg, in Kligman’s words, “to learn how the skin protects itself against chronic assault from toxic chemicals, the so-called hardening process.”[106]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      Psychological and torture experiments<\/span><\/h2>\n

                      U.S. government research<\/span><\/h3>\n

                      The United States government funded and performed numerous psychological experiments, especially during the\u00a0Cold War\u00a0era. Many of these experiments were performed to help develop more effective\u00a0torture\u00a0and\u00a0interrogation\u00a0techniques for the U.S. military and intelligence agencies, and to develop techniques for Americans to resist torture at the hands of enemy nations and organizations.<\/p>\n

                      Truth serum<\/span><\/h4>\n

                      In studies running from 1947 to 1953, which were known as\u00a0Project Chatter, the U.S. Navy began identifying and testing\u00a0truth serums, which they hoped could be used during interrogations of Soviet spies. Some of the chemicals tested on human subjects included\u00a0mescaline\u00a0and the\u00a0anticholinergic\u00a0drug\u00a0scopolamine.[111]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      Shortly thereafter, in 1950, the CIA initiated\u00a0Project Bluebird, later renamed\u00a0Project Artichoke, whose stated purpose was to develop “the means to control individuals through special interrogation techniques”, “way[s] to prevent the extraction of information from CIA agents”, and “offensive uses of unconventional techniques, such as hypnosis and drugs”.[111]<\/sup>[112]<\/sup>[113]<\/sup>\u00a0The purpose of the project was outlined in a memo dated January 1952 that stated, “Can we get control of an individual to the point where he will do our bidding against his will and even against fundamental laws of nature, such as self preservation?” The project studied the use of\u00a0hypnosis, forced\u00a0morphine\u00a0addiction\u00a0and subsequent forced\u00a0withdrawal, and the use of other chemicals, among other methods, to produce amnesia and other vulnerable states in subjects.[114]<\/sup>[115]<\/sup>[116]<\/sup>[117]<\/sup>[118]<\/sup>\u00a0In order to “perfect techniques … for the abstraction of information from individuals, whether willing or not”, Project Bluebird researchers experimented with a wide variety of psychoactive substances, including\u00a0LSD, heroin,\u00a0marijuana,\u00a0cocaine,\u00a0PCP,\u00a0mescaline, and\u00a0ether.[119]<\/sup>\u00a0Project Bluebird researchers dosed over 7,000 U.S. military personnel with\u00a0LSD, without their knowledge or consent, at the\u00a0Edgewood Arsenal\u00a0in\u00a0Maryland. Years after these experiments, more than 1,000 of these soldiers suffered from several illnesses, including\u00a0depression\u00a0and\u00a0epilepsy. Many of them tried to commit suicide.[120]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      Drug deaths<\/span><\/h4>\n

                      In 1952, professional tennis player\u00a0Harold Blauer\u00a0died when injected by Dr. James Cattell with a fatal dose of a mescaline derivative at the New York State Psychiatric Institute of\u00a0Columbia University. The\u00a0United States Department of Defense, which sponsored the injection, worked in collusion with the Department of Justice and the New York State Attorney General to conceal evidence of its involvement for 23 years. Cattell claimed that he did not know what the army had given him to inject into Blauer, saying: “We didn’t know whether it was\u00a0dog piss\u00a0or what we were giving him.”[121]<\/sup>[122]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      On November 19, 1953 Dr.\u00a0Frank Olson\u00a0was without his knowledge or consent given an LSD dosage before his death 9 days later. For 22 years this was covered up until the\u00a0Project MKUltra\u00a0revelations.[123]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      MKULTRA<\/span><\/h4>\n
                      Founding<\/span><\/h5>\n

                      In 1953, the CIA placed several of its interrogation and mind-control programs under the direction of a single program, known by the code name\u00a0MKULTRA, after CIA director\u00a0Allen Dulles\u00a0complained about not having enough “human guinea pigs to try these extraordinary techniques”.[124]<\/sup>\u00a0The MKULTRA project was under the direct command of\u00a0Dr. Sidney Gottlieb\u00a0of the\u00a0Technical Services Division.[124]<\/sup>\u00a0The project received over $25 million, and involved hundreds of experiments on human subjects at eighty different institutions.<\/p>\n

                      In a memo describing the purpose of one MKULTRA program subprogram, Richard Helms said:<\/p>\n

                      We intend to investigate the development of a chemical material which causes a reversible, nontoxic aberrant mental state, the specific nature of which can be reasonably well predicted for each individual. This material could potentially aid in discrediting individuals, eliciting information, and implanting suggestions and other forms of mental control.<\/p>\n

                      \u2014\u2009Richard Helms, internal CIA memo[125]<\/sup><\/cite><\/div>\n<\/blockquote>\n

                      In 1954, the CIA’s Project QKHILLTOP was created to study Chinese\u00a0brainwashing\u00a0techniques, and to develop effective methods of interrogation. Most of the early studies are believed to have been performed by the\u00a0Cornell University\u00a0Medical School’s human ecology study programs, under the direction of\u00a0Dr. Harold Wolff.[111]<\/sup>[126]<\/sup>[127]<\/sup>\u00a0Wolff requested that the CIA provide him any information they could find regarding “threats, coercion, imprisonment, deprivation, humiliation, torture, ‘brainwashing’, ‘black psychiatry’, and hypnosis, or any combination of these, with or without chemical agents.” According to Wolff, the research team would then:<\/p>\n

                      …assemble, collate, analyze and assimilate this information and will then undertake experimental investigations designed to develop new techniques of offensive\/defensive intelligence use … Potentially useful secret drugs (and various\u00a0brain damaging\u00a0procedures) will be similarly tested in order to ascertain the fundamental effect upon human brain function and upon the subject’s mood … Where any of the studies involve potential harm of the subject, we expect the Agency to make available suitable subjects and a proper place for the performance of the necessary experiments.<\/p>\n

                      \u2014\u2009Dr. Harold Wolff, Cornell University Medical School[127]<\/sup><\/cite><\/div>\n<\/blockquote>\n
                      \n
                      \n
                      “… it was fun, fun, fun. Where else could a red-blooded American boy lie, kill, cheat, steal, rape and pillage with the sanction and bidding of the All-highest?”<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

                      George Hunter White, who oversaw drug experiments for the CIA as part of\u00a0Operation Midnight Climax[128]<\/sup><\/cite><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

                      Another of the MKULTRA subprojects,\u00a0Operation Midnight Climax, consisted of a web of CIA-run safehouses in San Francisco, Marin, and New York which were established in order to study the effects of LSD on unconsenting individuals. Prostitutes on the CIA payroll were instructed to lure clients back to the safehouses, where they were surreptitiously plied with a wide range of substances, including LSD, and monitored behind one-way glass. Several significant operational techniques were developed in this theater, including extensive research into sexual blackmail, surveillance technology, and the possible use of mind-altering drugs in field operations.[128]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      In 1957, with funding from a CIA front organization,\u00a0Donald Ewen Cameron\u00a0of the\u00a0Allan Memorial Institute\u00a0in\u00a0Montreal, Canada\u00a0began MKULTRA Subproject 68.[129]<\/sup>\u00a0His experiments were designed to first “depattern” individuals, erasing their minds and memories\u2014reducing them to the mental level of an infant\u2014and then to “rebuild” their personality in a manner of his choosing.[130]<\/sup>\u00a0To achieve this, Cameron placed patients under his “care” into drug-induced comas for up to 88 days, and applied numerous high voltage electric shocks to them over the course of weeks or months, often administering up to 360 shocks per person. He would then perform what he called “psychic driving” experiments on the subjects, where he would repetitively play recorded statements, such as “You are a good wife and mother and people enjoy your company”, through speakers he had implanted into blacked-out football helmets that he bound to the heads of the test subjects (for\u00a0sensory deprivation\u00a0purposes). The patients could do nothing but listen to these messages, played for 16\u201320 hours a day, for weeks at a time. In one case, Cameron forced a person to listen to a message non-stop for 101 days.[130]<\/sup>\u00a0Using CIA funding, Cameron converted the horse\u00a0stables\u00a0behind Allan Memorial into an elaborate isolation and sensory deprivation chamber where he kept patients locked in for weeks at a time.[130]<\/sup>\u00a0Cameron also induced\u00a0insulin\u00a0comas in his subjects by giving them large injections of insulin, twice a day, for up to two months at a time.[111]<\/sup>\u00a0Several of the children who Cameron experimented on were sexually abused, in at least one case by several men. One of the children was filmed numerous times performing sexual acts with high-ranking federal government officials, in a scheme set up by Cameron and other MKULTRA researchers, to blackmail the officials to ensure further funding for the experiments.[131]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      \n
                      \n
                      “The frequent screams of the patients that echoed through the hospital did not deter Cameron or most of his associates in their attempts to depattern their subjects completely.”<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

                      John D. Marks,\u00a0The Search for the Manchurian Candidate<\/i>,\u00a0Chapter 8[132]<\/sup><\/cite><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

                      Concerns<\/span><\/h5>\n

                      The CIA leadership had serious concerns about these activities, as evidenced in a 1957\u00a0Inspector General\u00a0Report, which stated:<\/p>\n

                      Precautions must be taken not only to protect operations from exposure to enemy forces but also to conceal these activities from the American public in general. The knowledge that the agency is engaging in unethical and illicit activities would have serious repercussions in political and diplomatic circles …<\/p>\n

                      \u2014\u20091957\u00a0CIA Inspector General\u00a0Report[133]<\/sup><\/cite><\/div>\n<\/blockquote>\n

                      In 1963, CIA had synthesized many of the findings from its psychological research into what became known as the\u00a0KUBARK Counterintelligence Interrogation\u00a0handbook,[134]<\/sup>\u00a0which cited the MKULTRA studies and other secret research programs as the scientific basis for their interrogation methods.[130]<\/sup>\u00a0Cameron regularly traveled around the U.S. teaching military personnel about his techniques (hooding of prisoners for sensory deprivation, prolonged isolation, humiliation, etc.), and how they could be used in interrogations. Latin American paramilitary groups working for the CIA and U.S. military received training in these psychological techniques at places such as the\u00a0School of the Americas. In the 21st century, many of the torture techniques developed in the\u00a0MKULTRA\u00a0studies and other programs are being used at U.S. military and CIA prisons such as\u00a0Guantanamo Bay\u00a0and\u00a0Abu Ghraib.[130]<\/sup>[135]<\/sup>\u00a0In the aftermath of the Congressional hearings, major news media mainly focused on sensationalistic stories related to LSD, “mind-control”, and “brainwashing”, and rarely used the word “torture”. This suggested that CIA researchers were, as one author put it “a bunch of bumbling sci-fi buffoons”, rather than a rational group of men who had run torture laboratories and medical experiments in major U.S. universities; they had arranged for torture, rape and psychological abuse of adults and young children, driving many of them permanently insane.[130]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      Shutdown<\/span><\/h5>\n

                      MKULTRA activities continued until 1973 when CIA director\u00a0Richard Helms, fearing that they would be exposed to the public, ordered the project terminated, and all of the files destroyed.[124]<\/sup>\u00a0But, a clerical error had sent many of the documents to the wrong office, so when CIA workers were destroying the files, some of them remained. They were later released under a\u00a0Freedom of Information Actrequest by\u00a0investigative journalist\u00a0John Marks. Many people in the American public were outraged when they learned of the experiments, and several congressional investigations took place, including the\u00a0Church Committee\u00a0and the\u00a0Rockefeller Commission.<\/p>\n

                      On April 26, 1976, the\u00a0Church Committee\u00a0of the United States Senate issued a report,\u00a0Final Report of the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operation with Respect to Intelligence Activities<\/i>,[136]<\/sup>\u00a0In Book I, Chapter XVII, p.\u00a0389, this report states:<\/p>\n

                      LSD was one of the materials tested in the MKULTRA program. The final phase of LSD testing involved surreptitious administration to unwitting non-volunteer subjects in normal life settings by undercover officers of the Bureau of Narcotics acting for the CIA.<\/p>\n

                      A special procedure, designated MKDELTA, was established to govern the use of\u00a0MKULTRA\u00a0materials abroad. Such materials were used on a number of occasions. Because MKULTRA records were destroyed, it is impossible to reconstruct the operational use of MKULTRA materials by the CIA overseas; it has been determined that the use of these materials abroad began in 1953, and possibly as early as 1950.[114]<\/sup>[137]<\/sup>[138]<\/sup>[139]<\/sup>[140]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      Drugs were used primarily as an aid to interrogations, but MKULTRA\/MKDELTA materials were also used for harassment, discrediting, or disabling purposes.[114]<\/sup>[137]<\/sup>[138]<\/sup>[139]<\/sup>[140]<\/sup><\/p><\/blockquote>\n

                      Experiments on patients with Mental illness<\/span><\/h4>\n

                      Dr.\u00a0Robert Heath\u00a0of\u00a0Tulane University\u00a0performed experiments on 42 patients with\u00a0schizophrenia\u00a0and prisoners in the Louisiana State Penitentiary. The experiments were funded by the U.S. Army. In the studies, he dosed them with LSD and\u00a0Bulbocapnine, and implanted electrodes into the septal area of the brain to stimulate[141]<\/sup>\u00a0it and take EEG readings.[142]<\/sup>[143]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      Various experiments were performed on people with\u00a0schizophrenia\u00a0who were stable, other experiments were performed on people with their first episode of\u00a0psychosis. They were given\u00a0methylphenidate\u00a0to see the effect on their minds.[144]<\/sup>[145]<\/sup>[146]<\/sup>[147]<\/sup>[148]<\/sup>[149]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      Torture experiments<\/span><\/h4>\n

                      From 1964 to 1968, the U.S. Army paid $386,486 to professors Albert Kligman and\u00a0Herbert W. Copelan\u00a0to perform experiments with mind-altering drugs on 320 inmates of\u00a0Holmesburg Prison. The goal of the study was to determine the minimum effective dose of each drug needed to disable 50 percent of any given population. Kligman and Copelan initially claimed that they were unaware of any long-term health effects the drugs could have on prisoners; however, documents later revealed that this was not the case.[106]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      Medical professionals gathered and collected data on the CIA’s use of\u00a0torture\u00a0techniques on detainees during the 21st century war on terror, in order to refine those techniques, and “to provide legal cover for torture, as well as to help justify and shape future procedures and policies”, according to a 2010 report by\u00a0Physicians for Human Rights. The report stated that: “Research and medical experimentation on detainees was used to measure the effects of large-volume\u00a0waterboarding\u00a0and adjust the procedure according to the results.” As a result of the waterboarding experiments, doctors recommended adding\u00a0saline\u00a0to the water “to prevent putting detainees in a coma or killing them through over-ingestion of large amounts of plain water.”\u00a0Sleep deprivation\u00a0tests were performed on over a dozen prisoners, in 48-, 96- and 180-hour increments. Doctors also collected data intended to help them judge the emotional and physical effects of the techniques so as to “calibrate the level of pain experienced by detainees during interrogation” and to determine if using certain types of techniques would increase a subject’s “susceptibility to severe pain.” In 2010 the CIA denied the allegations, claiming they never performed any experiments, and saying “The report is just wrong”; however, the U.S. government never investigated the claims.[150]<\/sup>[151]<\/sup>[152]<\/sup>[153]<\/sup>[154]<\/sup>[155]<\/sup>\u00a0The psychologists\u00a0James Mitchell\u00a0and\u00a0Bruce Jessen\u00a0ran a company that was paid $81 million by the CIA, that, according to the\u00a0Senate Intelligence Committee report on CIA torture, developed the “enhanced interrogation techniques” used.[156]<\/sup>\u00a0In November 2014, the American Psychological Association announced that they would hire a lawyer to investigate claims that they were complicit in the development of enhanced interrogation techniques that constituted torture.[157]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      In August 2010, the U.S. weapons manufacturer\u00a0Raytheon\u00a0announced that it had partnered with a jail in\u00a0Castaic, California\u00a0in order to use prisoners as test subjects for its\u00a0Active Denial System\u00a0that “fires an invisible heat beam capable of causing unbearable pain.”[158]<\/sup>The device, dubbed “pain ray” by its critics, was rejected for fielding in Iraq due to Pentagon fears that it would be used as an instrument of torture.[159]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      Academic research<\/span><\/h3>\n

                      In 1939, at the Iowa Soldiers’ Orphans’ Home in\u00a0Davenport, Iowa, twenty-two children were the subjects of the so-called\u00a0“monster” experiment. This experiment attempted to use psychological abuse to induce stuttering in children who spoke normally. The experiment was designed by Dr.\u00a0Wendell Johnson, one of the nation’s most prominent speech pathologists, for the purpose of testing one of his theories on the cause of stuttering.[160]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      In 1961, in response to the\u00a0Nuremberg Trials, the\u00a0Yale\u00a0psychologist\u00a0Stanley Milgram\u00a0performed his “Obedience to Authority Study”, also known as the\u00a0Milgram Experiment, in order to determine if it was possible that the Nazi genocide could have resulted from millions of people who were “just following orders”. The Milgram Experiment raised questions about the ethics of scientific experimentation because of the extreme emotional stress suffered by the participants, who were told, as part of the experiment, to apply electric shocks to test subjects (who were actors and did not really receive\u00a0electric shocks).[citation needed<\/span><\/i>]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      In 1971,\u00a0Stanford University\u00a0psychologist\u00a0Philip Zimbardo\u00a0conducted the\u00a0Stanford prison experiment\u00a0in which twenty-four male students were randomly assigned roles of prisoners and guards in a mock prison situated in the basement of the Stanford psychology building. The participants adapted to their roles beyond Zimbardo’s expectations with prison guards exhibiting\u00a0authoritarian\u00a0status and psychologically abusing the prisoners who were passive in their acceptance of the abuse. The experiment was largely controversial with criticisms aimed toward the lack of scientific principles and a control group, and for ethical concerns regarding Zimbardo’s lack of intervention in the prisoner abuse.<\/p>\n

                      Pharmacological research<\/span><\/h2>\n

                      At Harvard University, in the late 1940s, researchers began performing experiments in which they tested\u00a0diethylstilbestrol, a synthetic\u00a0estrogen, on pregnant women at the Lying-In Hospital of the University of Chicago. The women experienced an abnormally high number of miscarriages and babies with\u00a0low birth weight\u00a0(LBW). None of the women were told that they were being experimented on.[161]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      In 1962, researchers at the Laurel Children’s Center in Maryland tested experimental\u00a0acne\u00a0medications on children. They continued their tests even after half of the children developed severe\u00a0liver\u00a0damage from the medications.[83]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      In 2004,\u00a0University of Minnesota\u00a0research participant\u00a0Dan Markingson committed suicide\u00a0while enrolled in an industry-sponsored pharmaceutical trial comparing three FDA-approved atypical antipsychotics:\u00a0Seroquel (quetiapine),\u00a0Zyprexa (olanzapine), and\u00a0Risperdal (risperidone). Writing on the circumstances surrounding Markingson’s death in the study, which was designed and funded by Seroquel manufacturer\u00a0AstraZeneca, University of Minnesota Professor of Bioethics\u00a0Carl Elliott\u00a0noted that Markingson was enrolled in the study against the wishes of his mother, Mary Weiss, and that he was forced to choose between enrolling in the study or being involuntarily committed to a state mental institution.[162]<\/sup>\u00a0Further investigation revealed financial ties to AstraZeneca by Markingson’s psychiatrist, Dr. Stephen C. Olson, oversights and biases in AstraZeneca’s trial design, and the inadequacy of university\u00a0Institutional Review Board (IRB)\u00a0protections for research subjects.[163]<\/sup>\u00a0A 2005 FDA investigation cleared the university. Nonetheless, controversy around the case has continued. A\u00a0Mother Jones<\/i>\u00a0article[164]<\/sup>\u00a0resulted in a group of university faculty members sending a public letter to the university Board of Regents urging an external investigation into Markingson’s death.[165]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      Other experiments<\/span><\/h2>\n

                      The 1846 journals of Walter F. Jones of Petersburg, Virginia, describe how he poured boiling water onto the backs of naked slaves afflicted with\u00a0typhoid\u00a0pneumonia, at four-hour intervals, because he thought that this might “cure” the disease by “stimulating the capillaries”.[166]<\/sup>[167]<\/sup>[168]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      From early 1940 until 1953,\u00a0Lauretta Bender, a highly respected pediatric neuropsychiatrist who practiced at\u00a0Bellevue Hospital\u00a0in New York City, performed electroshock experiments on at least 100 children. The children’s ages ranged from 3\u201312 years. Some reports indicate that she may have performed such experiments on more than 200. From 1942 to 1956, electroconvulsive treatment was used on more than 500 children at Bellevue Hospital, including Bender’s experiments; from 1956 to 1969, ECT was used at\u00a0Creedmoor State Hospital\u00a0Children’s Service. Publicly, Bender claimed that the results of the “therapy” were positive, but in private memos, she expressed frustration over mental health issues caused by the treatments.[169]<\/sup>\u00a0Bender would sometimes shock children with schizophrenia (some less than 3 years old) twice per day, for 20 consecutive days. Several of the children became violent and suicidal as a result of the treatments.[170]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      In 1942, the\u00a0Harvard University\u00a0biochemist\u00a0Edward Cohn injected 64\u00a0Massachusetts\u00a0prisoners with cow blood, as part of an experiment sponsored by the\u00a0U.S. Navy.[171]<\/sup>[172]<\/sup>[173]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      In 1950, researchers at the Cleveland City Hospital ran experiments to study changes in\u00a0cerebral\u00a0blood flow: they injected people with spinal\u00a0anesthesia, and inserted needles into their jugular veins and brachial arteries to extract large quantities of blood and, after massive blood loss which caused\u00a0paralysis\u00a0and\u00a0fainting, measured their\u00a0blood pressure. The experiment was often performed multiple times on the same subject.[83]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      In a series of studies which were published in the medical journal\u00a0Pediatrics<\/i>, researchers from the\u00a0University of California\u00a0Department of Pediatrics performed experiments on 113 newborns ranging in age from 1-hour to 3 days, in which they studied changes in blood pressure and blood flow. In one of the studies, researchers inserted a\u00a0catheter\u00a0through the babies’\u00a0umbilical arteries\u00a0and into their\u00a0aortas, and then submerged their feet in ice water. In another of the studies, they strapped 50 newborn babies to a\u00a0circumcision\u00a0board, and turned them upside down so that all of their blood rushed into their heads.[83]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      The San Antonio Contraceptive Study was a clinical research study published in 1971 about the side effects of oral contraceptives. Women coming to a clinic in San Antonio to prevent pregnancies were not told they were participating in a research study or receiving\u00a0placebos. 10 of the women became pregnant while on placebos.[174]<\/sup>[175]<\/sup>[176]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      During the decade of 2000\u20132010, artificial blood was transfused into research subjects across the United States without their consent by\u00a0Northfield Labs.[177]<\/sup>\u00a0Later studies showed the artificial blood caused a significant increase in the risk of heart attacks and death.[178]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      Legal, academic and professional policy<\/span><\/h2>\n
                      Main article:\u00a0Human subject research legislation in the United States<\/div>\n

                      During the\u00a0Nuremberg Medical Trials, several of the Nazi doctors and scientists who were being tried for their human experiments cited past unethical studies performed in the United States in their defense, namely the\u00a0Chicago malaria experiments\u00a0conducted by Dr.\u00a0Joseph Goldberger.[12]<\/sup>[49]<\/sup>\u00a0Subsequent investigation led to a report by\u00a0Andrew Conway Ivy, who testified that the research was “an example of human experiments which were ideal because of their conformity with the highest ethical standards of human experimentation”.[179]<\/sup>\u00a0The trials contributed to the formation of the\u00a0Nuremberg Code\u00a0in an effort to prevent such abuses.[180]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      A secret AEC document dated April 17, 1947, titled\u00a0Medical Experiments in Humans<\/i>\u00a0stated: “It is desired that no document be released which refers to experiments with humans that might have an adverse reaction on\u00a0public opinion\u00a0or result in legal suits. Documents covering such fieldwork should be classified Secret.”[58]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      At the same time, the\u00a0Public Health Service\u00a0was instructed to tell citizens downwind from bomb tests that the increases in cancers were due to\u00a0neurosis, and that women with radiation sickness, hair loss, and burned skin were suffering from “housewife syndrome”.[58]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      In 1964, the\u00a0World Medical Association\u00a0passed the\u00a0Declaration of Helsinki, a set of ethical principles for the medical community regarding human experimentation.<\/p>\n

                      In 1966, the United States\u00a0National Institutes of Health\u00a0(NIH) Office for Protection of Research Subjects (OPRR) was created. It issued its\u00a0Policies for the Protection of Human Subjects,<\/i>\u00a0which recommended establishing independent review bodies to oversee experiments. These were later called\u00a0institutional review boards.<\/p>\n

                      In 1969,\u00a0Kentucky Court of Appeals\u00a0Judge\u00a0Samuel Steinfeld\u00a0dissented in\u00a0Strunk v. Strunk, 445 S.W.2d 145.<\/i>\u00a0He made the first judicial suggestion that the\u00a0Nuremberg Code\u00a0should be applied to American\u00a0jurisprudence.<\/p>\n

                      In 1974 the\u00a0National Research Act\u00a0established the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects. It mandated that the\u00a0Public Health Service\u00a0come up with regulations to protect the rights of human research subjects.<\/p>\n

                      Project\u00a0MK-ULTRA\u00a0was first brought to wide public attention in 1975 by the\u00a0U.S. Congress, through investigations by the\u00a0Church Committee, and by a presidential commission known as the\u00a0Rockefeller Commission.[181]<\/sup>[182]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      In 1975, the Department of Health, Education and Welfare (DHEW) created regulations which included the recommendations laid out in the NIH’s 1966\u00a0Policies for the Protection of Human Subjects<\/i>.\u00a0Title 45 of the Code of Federal Regulations, known as “The Common Rule,” requires the appointment and use of institutional review boards (IRBs) in experiments using human subjects.<\/p>\n

                      On April 18, 1979, prompted by an investigative journalist’s public disclosure of the\u00a0Tuskegee syphilis experiments, the\u00a0United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare\u00a0(later renamed to\u00a0Health and Human Services) released a report entitled\u00a0Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research<\/i>, written by Dan Harms. It laid out many modern guidelines for ethical medical research.<\/p>\n

                      In 1987 the\u00a0United States Supreme Court\u00a0ruled in\u00a0United States v. Stanley,<\/i>\u00a0483 U.S. 669, that a U.S. serviceman who was given\u00a0LSDwithout his consent, as part of military experiments, could not sue the U.S. Army for damages. Dissenting the verdict in\u00a0U.S. v. Stanley<\/i>, Justice\u00a0Sandra Day O’Connor\u00a0stated:<\/p>\n

                      No judicially crafted rule should insulate from liability the involuntary and unknowing human experimentation alleged to have occurred in this case. Indeed, as Justice Brennan observes, the United States played an instrumental role in the\u00a0criminal prosecution\u00a0of Nazi scientists who\u00a0experimented with human subjects\u00a0during the\u00a0Second World War, and the standards that the\u00a0Nuremberg Military Tribunals\u00a0developed to judge the behavior of the defendants stated that the ‘voluntary consent of the human subject is absolutely essential … to satisfy moral, ethical, and legal concepts.’ If this principle is violated, the very least that society can do is to see that the victims are compensated, as best they can be, by the perpetrators.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

                      On January 15, 1994, President Bill Clinton formed the\u00a0Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments\u00a0(ACHRE). This committee was created to investigate and report the use of human beings as test subjects in experiments involving the effects of ionizing radiation in federally funded research. The committee attempted to determine the causes of the experiments and reasons that the proper oversight did not exist. It made several recommendations to help prevent future occurrences of similar events.[183]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      As of 2007, not a single U.S. government researcher had been prosecuted for human experimentation. The preponderance of the victims of U.S. government experiments have not received compensation or, in many cases, acknowledgment of what was done to them.[184]<\/sup><\/p>\n

                      See also<\/span><\/h2>\n
                      \n
                        \n
                      • \"flag\"United States portal<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n
                        \n
                          \n
                        • Belmont Report<\/li>\n
                        • Eugenics in the United States<\/li>\n
                        • Henry Cotton (doctor)<\/li>\n
                        • Unethical human experimentation<\/li>\n
                        • Human rights in the United States<\/li>\n
                        • Japanese human experimentation<\/li>\n
                        • Nazi human experimentation<\/li>\n
                        • North Korean human experimentation<\/li>\n
                        • Operation Big Buzz<\/li>\n
                        • Operation Crossroads<\/li>\n
                        • Operation Dew<\/li>\n
                        • Operation Drop Kick<\/li>\n
                        • Operation LAC<\/li>\n
                        • Operation May Day<\/li>\n
                        • Project MKUltra<\/li>\n
                        • Poison laboratory of the Soviet secret services<\/li>\n
                        • Research involving prisoners<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n

                          References<\/span><\/h2>\n

                          Notes<\/span><\/h3>\n
                          \n
                            \n
                          1. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Hornblum Allen M.; Newman Judith Lynn; Dober Gregory J. (2013).\u00a0Against Their Will: The Secret History of Medical Experimentation on Children in Cold War America<\/i>. Palgrave Macmillan.\u00a0ISBN\u00a0978-0-230-34171-5.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          2. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Some defend ‘father of gynecology’\u00a0by Barron H. Lerner,\u00a0The Tuscaloosa News<\/i>, Oct 30, 2003 (accessed: 02\/17\/2010)<\/span><\/li>\n
                          3. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Washington, 2008:\u00a0pp. 62-63<\/span><\/li>\n
                          4. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Cina & Perper, 2010:\u00a0p. 88<\/span><\/li>\n
                          5. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Washington, 2008:\u00a0pp. 66<\/span><\/li>\n
                          6. ^\u00a0Jump up to:<\/span>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/span>\u00a0Lederer, 1997:\u00a0pp. 7\u20138<\/span><\/li>\n
                          7. ^\u00a0Jump up to:<\/span>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0b<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0c<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/span>\u00a0Grodin & Glantz, 1994:\u00a0pp. 7\u201311<\/span><\/li>\n
                          8. ^\u00a0Jump up to:<\/span>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/span>\u00a0Blue Ethan (2009).\u00a0“The Strange Career of Leo Stanley: Remaking Manhood and Medicine at San Quentin State Penitentiary, 1913\u20131951”.\u00a0Pacific Historical Review<\/i>.\u00a078<\/b>\u00a0(2): 210\u2013241.\u00a0doi:10.1525\/phr.2009.78.2.210.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          9. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Hornblum, 1998:\u00a0p. 79<\/span><\/li>\n
                          10. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Lederer, 1997:\u00a0p. 3<\/span><\/li>\n
                          11. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Shamoo & Resnick, 2009:\u00a0pp. 238\u2013239<\/span><\/li>\n
                          12. ^\u00a0Jump up to:<\/span>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0b<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/span>\u00a0Germ War: The US Record\u00a0\u2013\u00a0Alexander Cockburn,\u00a0Counterpunch<\/i><\/span><\/li>\n
                          13. ^\u00a0Jump up to:<\/span>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/span>\u00a0Cina & Perper, 2010:\u00a0p. 89<\/span><\/li>\n
                          14. ^\u00a0Jump up to:<\/span>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/span>\u00a0Hornblum, 1998:\u00a0pp. 76\u201377<\/span><\/li>\n
                          15. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Roger Cooter (1992).\u00a0In the Name of the Child<\/i>. Routledge. pp.\u00a0104\u2013105.\u00a0ISBN\u00a0978-0-203-41223-7.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          16. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Reviews and Notes: History of Medicine: Subjected to Science: Human Experimentation in America before the Second World War,\u00a0Annals of Internal Medicine<\/i>,\u00a0American College of Physicians, July 15, 1995 vol. 123 no. 2 159<\/span><\/li>\n
                          17. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0“Tuskegee Study\u00a0\u2013 Timeline”.\u00a0NCHHSTP<\/i>. CDC. June 25, 2008. Retrieved\u00a02008-12-04<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          18. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment\u00a0Borgna Brunner. Retrieved 2010-03-25<\/span><\/li>\n
                          19. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Meiklejohn, Gordon N., M.D. “Commission on Influenza.” in\u00a0Histories’ of the Commissions<\/i>\u00a0Ed. Theodore E. Woodward, M.D., The Armed Forced Epidemiological Board, 1994<\/span><\/li>\n
                          20. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Halpern, 2006:\u00a0p. 199<\/span><\/li>\n
                          21. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Lederer, Susan E.\u00a0Subjected to Science: Human Experimentation in America before the Second World War,<\/i>\u00a0Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995\/1997<\/span><\/li>\n
                          22. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Grodin & Glantz, 1994:\u00a0p. 14<\/span><\/li>\n
                          23. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Brody, 1998:\u00a0p. 120<\/span><\/li>\n
                          24. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Cina & Perper, 2010:\u00a0p. 94<\/span><\/li>\n
                          25. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Black WC (February 1942). “The etiology of acute infectious gingivostomatitis (Vincent’s stomatitis)”.\u00a0The Journal of Pediatrics<\/i>.\u00a020<\/b>\u00a0(2): 145\u201360.\u00a0doi:10.1016\/S0022-3476(42)80125-0.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          26. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0George Annas\u00a0&\u00a0Michael Grodin, 1995:\u00a0p. 267<\/span><\/li>\n
                          27. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Hornblum, 1999:\u00a0p. 76<\/span><\/li>\n
                          28. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Rothman, 1992:\u00a0p.36<\/span><\/li>\n
                          29. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0“U.S. sorry for Guatemala syphilis experiment”.\u00a0CBC News<\/i>. October 1, 2010.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          30. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Rob Stein (October 1, 2010).\u00a0“U.S. apologizes for newly revealed syphilis experiments done in Guatemala”.\u00a0The Washington Post<\/i>.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          31. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0“US sorry over deliberate sex infections in Guatemala”. BBC News. October 1, 2010.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          32. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Chris McGreal (October 1, 2010).\u00a0“US says sorry for ‘outrageous and abhorrent’ Guatemalan syphilis tests”.\u00a0The Guardian<\/i>. London.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          33. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0“Johns Hopkins Univ. Faces $1 Billion Lawsuit Over STD Study”.\u00a0CBS Baltimore<\/i>. 1 April 2015.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          34. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Moreno, 2001:\u00a0pp. 233\u2013234<\/span><\/li>\n
                          35. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Blum, William (2006).\u00a0Rogue State: A Guide to the World’s Only Superpower<\/i>. Zed Books. pp.\u00a0147\u2013149.\u00a0ISBN\u00a0978-1-84277-827-2.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          36. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0“How the U.S. Government Exposed Thousands of Americans to Lethal Bacteria to Test Biological Warfare”,\u00a0Democracy Now!<\/i>, July 13, 2005<\/span><\/li>\n
                          37. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Howard Gordon Wilshire, Jane E. Nielson, Richard W. Hazlett (2008).\u00a0The American West at Risk: Science, Myths, and Politics of Land Abuse and Recovery<\/i>. Oxford University Press. p.\u00a0176.\u00a0ISBN\u00a0978-0-19-514205-1.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          38. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Tansey, Bernadette (October 31, 2004).\u00a0“Serratia has dark history in region: Army test in 1950 may have changed microbial ecology”.\u00a0San Francisco Chronicle<\/i>.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          39. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0An\u00eda BJ (October 1, 2008).\u00a0“Serratia: Overview”.\u00a0eMedicine<\/i>.\u00a0WebMD. Retrieved\u00a0November 23,<\/span>\u00a02011<\/span>.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          40. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Cole, 1996:\u00a0p. 17<\/span><\/li>\n
                          41. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Melnick, Alan L. (2008).\u00a0Biological, Chemical, and Radiological Terrorism: Emergency Preparedness and Response for the Primary Care Physician<\/i>. Springer. p.\u00a02.\u00a0ISBN\u00a0978-0-387-47231-7.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          42. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Hornblum, 1998:\u00a0p. 91<\/span><\/li>\n
                          43. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Frederick Adolf Paola, Robert Walker, Lois Lacivita Nixon, eds. (2009).\u00a0Medical Ethics and Humanities<\/i>. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. pp.\u00a0185\u2013186.\u00a0ISBN\u00a0978-0-7637-6063-2.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          44. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Hammer Breslow, Lauren. “The Best Pharmaceuticals for Children Act of 2002: The Rise of the Voluntary Incentive Structure and Congressional Refusal to Require Pediatric Testing”,\u00a0Harvard Journal on Legislation<\/i>, Vol. 40<\/span><\/li>\n
                          45. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Offit, Paul A.\u00a0(2007).\u00a0The Cutter Incident: How America’s First Polio Vaccine Led to the Growing Vaccine Crisis<\/i>. Yale University Press. p.\u00a037.\u00a0ISBN\u00a0978-0-300-12605-1.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          46. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Goliszek, 2003: p. 228<\/span><\/li>\n
                          47. ^\u00a0Jump up to:<\/span>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0b<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0c<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/span>\u00a0Blum, William\u00a0(2006).\u00a0Rogue State: A Guide to the World’s Only Superpower<\/i>. Zed Books. pp.\u00a0150\u2013151.\u00a0ISBN\u00a0978-1-84277-827-2.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          48. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Michael Parenti,\u00a0The Sword and the Dollar: Imperialism, Revolution, and the Arms Race<\/i>, St. Martins Press, 1989, pp.74\u201381, Excerpt available online at:[1]\u00a0(Retrieved February 18, 2010)<\/span><\/li>\n
                          49. ^\u00a0Jump up to:<\/span>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/span>\u00a0Loue, 2000:\u00a0pp. 26\u201329<\/span><\/li>\n
                          50. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Blum, William (2006).\u00a0Rogue State: A Guide to the World’s Only Superpower<\/i>. Zed Books. pp.\u00a0152\u2013154.\u00a0ISBN\u00a0978-1-84277-827-2.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          51. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Moreno, 2001:\u00a0p. 234<\/span><\/li>\n
                          52. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Cina & Perper, 2010:\u00a0p. 95<\/span><\/li>\n
                          53. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Wheelis, Mark; R\u00f3zsa, Lajos; Dando, Malcolm (2006).\u00a0Deadly cultures: biological weapons since 1945<\/i>. Harvard University Press. pp.\u00a027\u201328.\u00a0ISBN\u00a0978-0-674-01699-6.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          54. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0“How the U.S. Government Exposed Thousands of Americans to Lethal Bacteria to Test Biological Warfare”. Democracynow.org. 2005-07-13. Retrieved\u00a02012-12-16<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          55. ^\u00a0Jump up to:<\/span>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/span>\u00a0Loue, 2000:\u00a0pp. 19\u201323<\/span><\/li>\n
                          56. ^\u00a0Jump up to:<\/span>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/span>\u00a0American Nuclear Guinea Pigs\u00a0: Three Decades of Radiation Experiments on U.S. Citizens<\/i>. United States. Congress. House. of the Committee on Energy and Commerce. Subcommittee on Energy Conservation and Power, published by U.S. Government Printing Office, 1986, Identifier Y 4.En 2\/3:99-NN, Electronic Publication Date 2010, at the University of Nevada, Reno, unr.edu<\/span><\/li>\n
                          57. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Goliszek, 2003: pp. 130\u2013131<\/span><\/li>\n
                          58. ^\u00a0Jump up to:<\/span>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0b<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0c<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0d<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0e<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0f<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/span>\u00a0Goliszek, 2003: pp. 132\u2013134<\/span><\/li>\n
                          59. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Rebecca Leung. “A Dark Chapter In Medical History”.\u00a0CBS News,<\/i>\u00a011 February 2009.<\/span><\/li>\n
                          60. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Perni, Holliston (2005).\u00a0A Heritage of Hypocrisy<\/i>. Pleasant Mount Press, Inc. p.\u00a079.\u00a0ISBN\u00a00976748975.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          61. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Atomic Energy Commission’s Declassification Review of Reports on Human Experiments and the Public Relations and Legal Liability Consequences, presented as evidence during the 1994 ACHRE hearings.<\/span><\/li>\n
                          62. ^\u00a0Jump up to:<\/span>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/span>\u00a0Goliszek, 2003: pp. 136\u2013137<\/span><\/li>\n
                          63. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Moreno, 2001:\u00a0p. 132<\/span><\/li>\n
                          64. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0LeBaron, Wayne D. (1998).\u00a0America’s nuclear legacy<\/i>. Nova Publishers. pp.\u00a0109\u2013111.\u00a0ISBN\u00a0978-1-56072-556-5.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          65. ^\u00a0Jump up to:<\/span>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/span>\u00a0Moss, William; Eckhardt, Roger (1995).\u00a0“The Human Plutonium Injection Experiments”\u00a0(PDF).\u00a0Los Alamos Science<\/i>. Radiation Protection and the Human Radiation Experiments (23): 177\u2013223. Retrieved\u00a06 December<\/span>\u00a02013<\/span>.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          66. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0[2],\u00a0Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments, 1985<\/span><\/li>\n
                          67. ^\u00a0Jump up to:<\/span>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/span>\u00a0Welsome, Eileen (1999).\u00a0The Plutonium Files:America’s Secret Medical Experiments in the Cold War<\/i>\u00a0(PDF). Dial Press.\u00a0ISBN\u00a00385314027. Retrieved\u00a06 December<\/span>\u00a02013<\/span>.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          68. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Eileen Welsome (1999).\u00a0The Plutonium Files: America’s Secret Medical Experiments in the Cold War<\/i>. New York: Dial Press. pp.\u00a0146\u2013148.\u00a0ISBN\u00a00-385-31402-7.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          69. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0“Plutonium Files: How the U.S. Secretly Fed Radioactivity to Thousands of Americans”,\u00a0Democracy Now!<\/i>, May 5, 2004<\/span><\/li>\n
                          70. ^\u00a0Jump up to:<\/span>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/span>\u00a0LeBaron, Wayne D. (1998).\u00a0America’s nuclear legacy<\/i>. Nova Publishers. pp.\u00a097\u201398.\u00a0ISBN\u00a0978-1-56072-556-5.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          71. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Pacchioli David (1996).\u00a0“Subjected to Science”.\u00a0Research\/Penn State<\/i>.\u00a017<\/b>\u00a0(1).<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          72. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Goliszek, 2003: p. 139<\/span><\/li>\n
                          73. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0“America’s Deep, Dark Secret”.\u00a0CBS News<\/i>. April 29, 2004. Retrieved\u00a0February 18,<\/span>\u00a02010<\/span>.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          74. ^\u00a0Jump up to:<\/span>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/span>\u00a0Abhilash R. Vaishnav (1994).\u00a0The Tech online edition<\/i>. The Tech.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          75. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Perni, Holliston (2005).\u00a0A Heritage of Hypocrisy<\/i>. Pleasant Mount Press, Inc. p.\u00a079.\u00a0ISBN\u00a00976748975.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          76. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0“Transcript \u2013 February 15, 1995”,\u00a0Eleventh Meeting, February 19\u201320, 1995 \u2013 Washington D.C.<\/i>,\u00a0Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments\u00a0(Retrieved February 19, 2010) \u2013 see testimony of Honicker<\/span><\/li>\n
                          77. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Eckart, 2006:\u00a0p. 263<\/span><\/li>\n
                          78. ^\u00a0Jump up to:<\/span>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0b<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/span>\u00a0Cherbonnier, Alice (October 1, 1997)\u00a0“Nasal Radium Irradiation of Children Has Health Fallout”,\u00a0Baltimore Chronicle and Sentinel<\/i>\u00a0(Retrieved February 19, 2010)<\/span><\/li>\n
                          79. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Danielle Gordon (January 1996).\u00a0“The Verdict: No harm, no foul”.\u00a0Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists<\/i>.\u00a052<\/b>\u00a0(1).<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          80. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Stewart A. Farber (March 12, 1996).\u00a0“Nasal Radium Irradiation: Bad Science, Bad Medicine, Bad Ethics”.\u00a0Testimony to U.S. Senate Committee on Governmental Affairs (ACHRE hearings)<\/i>.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          81. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Goliszek, 2003: p. 253<\/span><\/li>\n
                          82. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0LeBaron, Wayne D. (1998).\u00a0America’s nuclear legacy<\/i>. Nova Publishers. p.\u00a0105.\u00a0ISBN\u00a0978-1-56072-556-5.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          83. ^\u00a0Jump up to:<\/span>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0b<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0c<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0d<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/span>\u00a0Goliszek, 2003: pp. 223\u2013225<\/span><\/li>\n
                          84. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Institute of Medicine (U.S.). Committee on Thyroid Screening Related to I-131 Exposure, National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on Exposure of the American People to I-131 from the Nevada Atomic Bomb Tests, ed. (1999).\u00a0Exposure of the American people to Iodine-131 from Nevada nuclear-bomb tests: review of the National Cancer Institute report and public health implications<\/i>. National Academies Press. pp.\u00a0113\u2013114.\u00a0ISBN\u00a0978-0-309-06175-9.<\/cite>\u00a0\u2013 deaths taken from 90% survival rate, applied to # of cases<\/span><\/li>\n
                          85. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0ACHRE Report:New Ethical Questions for Medical Researchers<\/i>
                            \n“In 1949, the AEC undertook\u00a0Project GABRIEL, a secret effort to study the question of whether the tests could threaten the viability of life on earth. In 1953, Gabriel led to Project Sunshine…”<\/span><\/li>\n
                          86. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0U.S. Department of Energy,\u00a0“Report on Project Gabriel”<\/i>, July 1954<\/span><\/li>\n
                          87. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Goncalves, Eddie (June 3, 2001).\u00a0“Britain snatched babies’ bodies for nuclear labs”.\u00a0The Guardian<\/i>. London.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          88. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0“REPORT ON PROJECT GABRIEL”. U.S. ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION Division of Biology and Medicine. Retrieved\u00a02013-09-26<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          89. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0“Dundee University Medical School; PDF”\u00a0(PDF). Retrieved\u00a02012-12-16<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          90. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0LeBaron, Wayne D. (1998).\u00a0America’s nuclear legacy<\/i>. Nova Publishers. pp.\u00a099\u2013100.\u00a0ISBN\u00a0978-1-56072-556-5.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          91. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Thomas H. Maugh II,\u00a0“Eugene Saenger, 90; physician conducted pivotal studies on effects of radiation exposure”,\u00a0Los Angeles Times<\/i>, October 6, 2007 (Retrieved February 18, 2010)<\/span><\/li>\n
                          92. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0“Human Experiments”. Netti.fi. Retrieved\u00a02012-12-16<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          93. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Cockburn, Alexander; Jeffrey St. Clair (1998).\u00a0Whiteout: The CIA, Drugs and the Press<\/i>. New York: Verso. pp.\u00a0157\u2013159.\u00a0ISBN\u00a01-85984-258-5.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          94. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Goliszek, 2003: Ch. 4<\/span><\/li>\n
                          95. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Moreno, 2001:\u00a0pp. 40\u201343<\/span><\/li>\n
                          96. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Freeman, Karen (December 1991).\u00a0“The Unfought Chemical War”.\u00a0Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists<\/i>: 30\u201339.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          97. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Pechura, Constance M. & Rall, David P., eds. (1993).\u00a0Veterans at Risk: the health effects of mustard gas and Lewisite<\/i>. National Academies Press. p.\u00a031.\u00a0ISBN\u00a0978-0-309-04832-3.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          98. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Cina & Perper, 2010:\u00a0p. 96<\/span><\/li>\n
                          99. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Mangold, Tom; Goldberg, Jeff (2000).\u00a0Plague wars: a true story of biological warfare<\/i>. Macmillan. p.\u00a037.\u00a0ISBN\u00a0978-0-312-20353-5.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          100. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0B.M. Ansell, F. Antonini, L.E. Glynn: “Cantharides blisters in children with rheumatic fever”.\u00a0Clinical Science<\/i>, November 1953, 12 (4): 367\u2013373.<\/span><\/li>\n
                          101. ^\u00a0Jump up to:<\/span>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0b<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/span>\u00a0Pechura, Constance M. and Rall, David P.\u00a0Veterans at Risk: The Health Effects of Mustard Gas and Lewisite<\/i>, (Google Books), U.S. Institute of Medicine: Committee to Survey the Health Effects of Mustard Gas and Lewisite, National Academies Press, 1993, p. 379\u201380, (ISBN\u00a0030904832X)<\/span><\/li>\n
                          102. ^\u00a0Jump up to:<\/span>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/span>\u00a0Moreno, Jonathan D.\u00a0Undue Risk: Secret State Experiments on Humans<\/i>, (Google Books), Routledge, 2001, pp. 179\u201380, (ISBN\u00a00415928354)<\/span><\/li>\n
                          103. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Hornblum, 1998:\u00a0p. 216<\/span><\/li>\n
                          104. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Cina & Perper, 2010:\u00a0pp. 92\u201393<\/span><\/li>\n
                          105. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Washington, 2008:\u00a0pp. 249\u2013262<\/span><\/li>\n
                          106. ^\u00a0Jump up to:<\/span>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0b<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0c<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/span>\u00a0Kaye, Jonathan. “Retin-A’s Wrinkled Past”,\u00a0Pennsylvania History Review<\/i>, Spring 1997.<\/span><\/li>\n
                          107. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Hornblum, 1998:\u00a0p. 320<\/span><\/li>\n
                          108. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0“Ex-Inmates Sue Penn and Kligman over Research”.\u00a0The Pennsylvania Gazette<\/i>.\u00a0The University of Pennsylvania. January\u2013February 2001. Retrieved\u00a0November 9,<\/span>\u00a02009<\/span>.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          109. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Hornblum, 2007: p. 52<\/span><\/li>\n
                          110. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Goliszek, 2003: p. 226<\/span><\/li>\n
                          111. ^\u00a0Jump up to:<\/span>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0b<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0c<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/span>\u00a0Goliszek, 2003: pp. 152\u2013154<\/span><\/li>\n
                          112. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Michael Evans.\u00a0“Science, Technology and the CIA”.\u00a0Gwu.edu<\/i>.\u00a0George Washington University. Retrieved\u00a02012-12-16<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          113. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Church Committee<\/i>;\u00a0p. 390\u00a0“MKULTRA was approved by the DCI [Director of Central Intelligence] on April 13, 1953”<\/span><\/li>\n
                          114. ^\u00a0Jump up to:<\/span>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0b<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/span>\u00a0Estabrooks, G.H. “Hypnosis comes of age”.\u00a0Science Digest<\/i>, 44\u201350, April 1971<\/span><\/li>\n
                          115. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Gillmor, D.\u00a0I Swear by Apollo: Dr. Ewen Cameron and the CIA-Brainwashing Experiments<\/i>. Montreal: Eden press, 1987.<\/span><\/li>\n
                          116. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Scheflin, A.W., & Opton, E.M.\u00a0The Mind Manipulators<\/i>. New York: Paddington Press, 1978.<\/span><\/li>\n
                          117. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Thomas, G.\u00a0Journey into Madness: The Secret Story of Secret CIA Mind Control and Medical Abuse<\/i>. New York: Bantam, 1989 (paperback 1990).<\/span><\/li>\n
                          118. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Weinstein, H.\u00a0Psychiatry and the CIA: Victims of Mind Control<\/i>. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1990.<\/span><\/li>\n
                          119. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Otterman, 2007:\u00a0p. 23<\/span><\/li>\n
                          120. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Otterman, 2007:\u00a0pp. 21\u201322<\/span><\/li>\n
                          121. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0John S. Friedman, ed. (2005).\u00a0The Secret Histories: Hidden Truths that Challenged the Past and Changed the World<\/i>. Macmillan. p.\u00a0146.\u00a0ISBN\u00a0978-0-312-42517-3.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          122. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Cole, 1996:\u00a0pp. 31\u201332<\/span><\/li>\n
                          123. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Lee, M. A., Shlain, B. (1985). Acid Dreams, the Complete Social History of LSD: the CIA, the Sixties, and Beyond. Grove Press.<\/span><\/li>\n
                          124. ^\u00a0Jump up to:<\/span>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0b<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/span>\u00a0McCoy, 2006:\u00a0pp. 28\u201330<\/span><\/li>\n
                          125. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Goliszek, 2003:\u00a0p. 155<\/span><\/li>\n
                          126. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0APPENDIX C: Documents Referring To Subprojects\u00a0\u2013\u00a01977 Senate MKULTRA Hearing<\/i>\u00a0(Retrieved February 18, 2010)<\/span><\/li>\n
                          127. ^\u00a0Jump up to:<\/span>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/span>\u00a0Otterman, 2007:\u00a0pp. 24\u201325<\/span><\/li>\n
                          128. ^\u00a0Jump up to:<\/span>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/span>\u00a0Cockburn, Alexander; Jeffrey St. Clair (1998).\u00a0Whiteout: The CIA, Drugs and the Press<\/i>. New York: Verso. pp.\u00a0206\u2013209.\u00a0ISBN\u00a01-85984-258-5.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          129. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Otterman, 2007:\u00a0pp. 45\u201347<\/span><\/li>\n
                          130. ^\u00a0Jump up to:<\/span>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0b<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0c<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0d<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0e<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0f<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/span>\u00a0Naomi Klein\u00a0(2007). “1”.\u00a0The Shock Doctrine: The Rise of Disaster Capitalism<\/i>. New York: Metropolitan Books.\u00a0ISBN\u00a00-8050-7983-1.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          131. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Goliszek, 2003: pp. 170\u2013171<\/span><\/li>\n
                          132. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Marks, John D.,\u00a0Chapter 8,\u00a0The Search for the Manchurian Candidate<\/i><\/span><\/li>\n
                          133. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Otterman, 2007:\u00a0p. 27<\/span><\/li>\n
                          134. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0McCoy, 2006:\u00a0pp. 50\u201353<\/span><\/li>\n
                          135. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Alfred W. McCoy, “U.S. Has a History of Using Torture”,\u00a0Z Magazine<\/i><\/span><\/li>\n
                          136. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0“Final report of the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, United States Senate\u00a0: together with additional, supplemental, and separate views”. Archive.org. Retrieved\u00a02012-12-16<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          137. ^\u00a0Jump up to:<\/span>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/span>\u00a0Gillmor, D.\u00a0I Swear by Apollo. Dr. Ewen Cameron and the CIA-Brainwashing Experiments<\/i>. Montreal: Eden Press, 1987.<\/span><\/li>\n
                          138. ^\u00a0Jump up to:<\/span>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/span>\u00a0Scheflin, A.W., & Opton, E.M.\u00a0The Mind Manipulators<\/i>, New York: Paddington Press, 1978.<\/span><\/li>\n
                          139. ^\u00a0Jump up to:<\/span>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/span>\u00a0Thomas, G.\u00a0Journey into Madness. The Secret Story of Secret CIA Mind Control and Medical Abuse,<\/i>\u00a0New York: Bantam, 1989 (paperback 1990).<\/span><\/li>\n
                          140. ^\u00a0Jump up to:<\/span>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup>\u00a0b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/span>\u00a0Weinstein, H.\u00a0Psychiatry and the CIA: Victims of Mind Control,<\/i>Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1990.<\/span><\/li>\n
                          141. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0“Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry”. Retrieved\u00a0February 14,<\/span>\u00a02016<\/span>.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          142. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Mohr, Clarence L.; Joseph E. Gordon (2001).\u00a0Tulane: the emergence of a modern university, 1945-1980<\/i>. LSU Press. p.\u00a0123.\u00a0ISBN\u00a0978-0-8071-2553-3.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          143. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Baumeister, Alan A. (2000). “The Tulane Electrical Brain Stimulation Program. A historical Case Study in Medical Ethics”.\u00a0Journal of the History of the Neurosciences<\/i>.\u00a09<\/b>\u00a0(3): 262\u2013278.\u00a0doi:10.1076\/jhin.9.3.262.1787.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          144. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Lieberman JA, Kane JM, Gadaleta D, Brenner R, Lesser MS, Kinon B. “Methylphenidate challenge as a predictor of relapse in schizophrenia”.\u00a0Am J Psychiatry<\/i>.\u00a0141<\/b>: 633\u20138.\u00a0PMID\u00a06143506.\u00a0doi:10.1176\/ajp.141.5.633.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          145. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Lieberman JA, Kane JM, Sarantakos S, Gadaleta D, Woerner M, Alvir J, Ramos-Lorenzi J. “Prediction of relapse in schizophrenia”.\u00a0Arch Gen Psychiatry<\/i>.\u00a044<\/b>: 597\u2013603.\u00a0PMID\u00a02886110.\u00a0doi:10.1001\/archpsyc.1987.01800190013002.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          146. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Jody D, Lieberman JA, Geisler S, Szymanski S, Alvir JM. “Behavioral response to methylphenidate and treatment outcome in first episode schizophrenia”.\u00a0Psychopharmacol Bull<\/i>.\u00a026<\/b>: 224\u201330.\u00a0PMID\u00a02236460.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          147. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Robinson D, Mayerhoff D, Alvir J, Cooper T, Lieberman J. “Mood responses of remitted schizophrenics to methylphenidate infusion”.\u00a0Psychopharmacology<\/i>.\u00a0105<\/b>: 247\u201352.\u00a0PMID\u00a01796130.\u00a0doi:10.1007\/bf02244317.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          148. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Lieberman JA, Alvir J, Geisler S, Ramos-Lorenzi J, Woerner M, Novacenko H, Cooper T, Kane JM. “Methylphenidate response, psychopathology and tardive dyskinesia as predictors of relapse in schizophrenia”.\u00a0Neuropsychopharmacology<\/i>.\u00a011<\/b>: 107\u201318.\u00a0PMID\u00a07840862.\u00a0doi:10.1038\/npp.1994.40.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          149. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Koreen AR, Lieberman JA, Alvir J, Chakos M. “The behavioral effect of m-chlorophenylpiperazine (mCPP) and methylphenidate in first-episode schizophrenia and normal controls”.\u00a0Neuropsychopharmacology<\/i>.\u00a016<\/b>: 61\u20138.\u00a0PMID\u00a08981389.\u00a0doi:10.1016\/S0893-133X(96)00160-1.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          150. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Sheldon Richman (June 23, 2010).\u00a0“Did the CIA Conduct Medical Experiments on Detainees?”.\u00a0Counterpunch<\/i>.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          151. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Experiments in Torture: Human Subject Research and Experimentation in the “Enhanced” Interrogation Program,\u00a0Physicians for Human Rights<\/i>, June 2010
                            \nSee also:
                            \n*Related Publications
                            \n*Outside Academic Experts Respond to Experiments in Torture
                            \n*Complaint to Office of Human Research Protections Regarding Evidence of CIA Violations of Common Rule
                            \n*Experiments in Torture (video)<\/span><\/li>\n
                          152. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Experiments in Torture: Medical Group Accuses CIA of Carrying Out Illegal Human Experimentation,\u00a0Democracy Now!<\/i>, June 8, 2010<\/span><\/li>\n
                          153. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Accounting for Torture: Being Faithful to our Values, (video)\u00a0National Religious Campaign Against Torture<\/i>\u00a0(cited by PHR)<\/span><\/li>\n
                          154. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Risen, James (June 6, 2010).\u00a0“Medical Ethics Lapses Cited in Interrogations”.\u00a0The New York Times<\/i>.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          155. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0ICRC Report on the Treatment of Fourteen “High Value Detainees” in CIA Custody<\/i>, International Committee of the Red Cross, February 14, 2007<\/span><\/li>\n
                          156. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0United States Senate Select Committee on Intelligence.\u00a0“The Senate Committee’s Report on the C.I.A.’s Use of Torture”December 9, 2014.<\/span><\/li>\n
                          157. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0“Statement of APA Board of Directors: Outside Counsel to Conduct Independent Review of Allegations of Support for Torture”. American Psychological Association. 12 Nov 2014.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          158. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0“California Jail to Test Ray Gun on Prisoners”.\u00a0Democracy Now!<\/i>. August 23, 2010.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          159. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Weinberger, Sharon (August 30, 2007).\u00a0“No Pain Ray for Iraq”.\u00a0Wired<\/i>.\u00a0Archived\u00a0from the original on December 10, 2008. Retrieved\u00a0December 13,<\/span>\u00a02008<\/span>.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          160. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0“Theory improved treatment and understanding of stuttering:” Ethics concerns led researchers to conceal the experiment Decades later, the experiment’s victims struggle to make sense of their past, Jim Dyer,\u00a0San Jose Mercury News<\/i>, Monday, June 11, 2001 (Retrieved February 17, 2010)<\/span><\/li>\n
                          161. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Loue, 2000:\u00a0p. 30<\/span><\/li>\n
                          162. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Elliott, Carl (September\/October 2010). “The deadly corruption of clinical trials.” Mother Jones:\u00a0http:\/\/www.motherjones.com\/environment\/2010\/09\/dan-markingson-drug-trial-astrazeneca?page=1<\/span><\/li>\n
                          163. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Carl.\u00a0“Dan Markingson Investigation”. Retrieved\u00a0February 14,<\/span>2016<\/span>.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          164. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0“The Deadly Corruption of Clinical Trials” Author Carl Elliott. 2010<\/span><\/li>\n
                          165. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0“U of M Board of Regents Markingson Letter”.\u00a0Scribd<\/i>. Retrieved\u00a0February 14,<\/span>\u00a02016<\/span>.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          166. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Washington, 2008:\u00a0pp. 60\u201363<\/span><\/li>\n
                          167. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Savitt, Todd Lee (2002).\u00a0Medicine and Slavery: The Diseases and Health Care of Blacks in Antebellum Virginia<\/i>. University of Illinois Press. p.\u00a0299.\u00a0ISBN\u00a0978-0-252-00874-0.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          168. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Shamoo & Resnick, 2009:\u00a0p. 239<\/span><\/li>\n
                          169. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Albarelli Jr., H.P.; Kaye, Jeffrey S.;\u00a0“The Hidden Tragedy of the CIA’s Experiments on Children”,\u00a0Truthout<\/i>, Wednesday August 11, 2010<\/span><\/li>\n
                          170. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Whitaker, Robert (2010).\u00a0Mad in America: Bad Science, Bad Medicine, and the Enduring Mistreatment of the Mentally Ill<\/i>. Basic Books. p.\u00a0315.\u00a0ISBN\u00a0978-0-465-02014-0.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          171. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Cina & Perper, 2010:\u00a0p. 92<\/span><\/li>\n
                          172. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Hornblum, 1999: p. 80<\/span><\/li>\n
                          173. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Dober, Gregory\u00a0“Cheaper than Chimpanzees: Expanding the Use of Prisoners in Medical Experiments”,\u00a0Prison Legal News<\/i>, VOL. 19 No. 3, March 2008<\/span><\/li>\n
                          174. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Goldzieher JW, Moses LE, Averkin E, Scheel C, Taber BZ (Sep 1971). “A placebo-controlled double-blind crossover investigation of the side effects attributed to oral contraceptives”.\u00a0Fertil Steril<\/i>.\u00a022<\/b>(9): 609\u201323.\u00a0PMID\u00a04105854.\u00a0doi:10.1016\/s0015-0282(16)38469-2.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          175. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Levine, Robert J.\u00a0“Ethics and regulation of clinical research, 2nd ed”. Yale University Press, 1986, p.71-72.\u00a0ISBN\u00a00806711124<\/span><\/li>\n
                          176. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Veatch RM.\u00a0“Experimental pregnancy: the ethical complexities of experimentation with oral contraceptives”.\u00a0Hastings Cent Rep.<\/i>1971 Jun; (1):2\u20133.\u00a0PMID\u00a04137658<\/span><\/li>\n
                          177. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Brian Ross (May 23, 2007).\u00a0“Test of Controversial Artificial Blood Product a Failure”.\u00a0ABC News, “The Blotter”<\/i>.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          178. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Ed Edelson (April 28, 2008).\u00a0“Experimental Blood Substitutes Unsafe, Study Finds”.\u00a0ABC News<\/i>.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          179. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Bernard, Larry.\u00a0“Historian examines U.S. ethics in Nuremberg Medical Trial tactics.”\u00a0Cornell Chronicle<\/i><\/span><\/li>\n
                          180. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Weindling, Paul (Spring 2001).\u00a0“The Origins of Informed Consent – Nuremberg Code”,\u00a0Bulletin of the History of Medicine<\/i><\/span><\/li>\n
                          181. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Science, Technology, and the CIA,\u00a0National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book<\/i>, Jeffrey T. Richelson, Editor, September 10, 2001 (Retrieved February 18, 2010)<\/span><\/li>\n
                          182. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0“U.S. Senate: Joint Hearing before The Select Committee on Intelligence and The Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research of the Committee on Human Resources”, 95th Cong., 1st Sess. August 3, 1977.<\/span><\/li>\n
                          183. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0“Final report of ACHRE”. Eh.doe.gov. Retrieved\u00a02012-12-16<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n
                          184. Jump up<\/span>^<\/b><\/span>\u00a0Henry N. Pontell, Gilbert Geis, eds. (2007).\u00a0International Handbook of White-Collar and Corporate Crime<\/i>. Springer. p.\u00a062.\u00a0ISBN\u00a0978-0-387-34110-1.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n

                            Bibliography<\/span>[<\/span>edit]<\/span><\/span><\/h3>\n
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